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1990-1991 Dissertation Abstracts: Part 2
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ORDER NO: ABA92-08772
INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES WHICH STIMULATE BEHAVIORAL CHANGE AS PERCEIVED BY ADULT PARTICIPANTS (SKILLS TRAINING, ADULT LEARNERS) Author: EGGERT, JAMES FREDERICK Degree: PH.D. Year: 1991 Corporate Source/Institution: MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY (0128) Source: VOLUME 52/10-A OF DISSERTATION ABSTRACTS INTERNATIONAL. PAGE 3502. 226 PAGES Descriptors: EDUCATION, ADULT AND CONTINUING; EDUCATION, CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION; EDUCATION, HIGHER This research explored two primary issues: (1) the relationship between perceived behavioral changes and the instructional activities which participants report fostered those changes, and (2) the possible means by which those instructional activities initiated and fostered those changes. Other related issues were explored. The research was conducted with graduates of eight programs of study for adult learners within diverse institutions (private vocational school, Bible college, community college, four year colleges, and universities). Quantitative and qualitative data were collected using questionnaires completed by 163 participants and follow-up interviews with 20 subjects. Participants identified behaviors which they perceived had changed as a result of their programs of study and identified a type of instructional activity which they perceived had most influenced each change. Of the 535 behavioral changes, the percentage attributed to each type of instructional activity is as follows:(UNFORMATTED TABLE OR EQUATION FOLLOWS)$$\vbox\halign#\hfil&&\quad#\hfil\cr&25.05&-&assignments requiring physical or active involvement\cr&21.31&-&classroom participative activities\cr&14.95&-&discussions and/or reflective thinking\cr&14.95&-&classroom presentations of all kinds, including verbal,\cr&&&visual aids, audiovisuals, and demonstrations\cr&10.84&-&reports or writing assignments\cr&4.86&-&reading assignments\cr&4.67&-&other\cr&3.36&-&can't identify\cr$$(TABLE/EQUATION ENDS) Two primary rationales were given for the effect of assignments requiring active involvement: direct experience with real life processes and positive reinforcement (internal and external). Other rationales were mentioned less frequently: "forced" involvement, use of thoughts and feelings from the experience, and insights about need. Several rationales were given for the effect of participative activities: engagement or involvement, practice, insight, awareness, and model of the instructor. Participants' perceptions of the percentage of classroom time spent in three types of activities and the percentage of outside-the-classroom time spent in three other types of activities revealed that the extent of use of the six types of instructional activities within the eight programs of study is significantly different, as indicated by F ratios (p $<$.001). A significant relationship of.31982 (p =.00003) was found between participants' desire for change in behaviors and the amount of perceived change in behaviors. Significant relationships of.37570 to.46003 (p =.00000) were also found between anticipated changes and perceived changes in three categories: behaviors, attitudes or values, and knowledge and understanding.
ORDER NO: ABA92-07270
The purpose of the study was to design a comprehensive system of quality instruction for community college chemistry, called the Quasi-Mastery Learning system. The system is an adaptation of Bloom's Mastery Learning, possessing the major elements of the Mastery Learning except the unlimited time. In the Quasi-Mastery Learning method, there is a time limitation of a semester (approximately 15 weeks). The method pays special attention to the exposition of the material, the self-esteem of the student, the different learning styles, and the time constriction of the students. The treatment received by the control group (111 students taking General Chemistry with Qualitative Analysis I, CHM 1045C) was a traditional lecture approach to the instruction of chemistry. The treatment received by the experimental group (116 students taking General Chemistry with Qualitative Analysis I, CHM 1045C) consisted of the Quasi-Mastery Learning system of instruction. Presentation of the material in the Quasi-Mastery Learning system was aided with Ausubel's organizers; the tone of lecture was non-threatening and relaxed, educational objectives were distributed at the beginning of each topic. Summative and formative evaluations were administered in a timely fashion dictated by students' performances. Four different types of remedial/tutorial strategies were prescribed to the students on an as-needed basis in the Quasi-Mastery Learning system: (1) group review sessions, (2) tutorial software, (3) tutoring center, and (4) reference books. This study indicated that the Quasi-Mastery Learning system of instruction is significantly more effective than the traditional curriculum providing greater student achievement and student retention. The Quasi-Mastery Learning system of instruction is important because it is an innovation to the instruction of chemistry for the community college students and, also represents the first attempt to conduct the mastery learning system at the community college level and with the time limitation of one semester.
ORDER NO: ABA92-06929
Since the 1950s and early 1960s, computer-assisted instruction has received special attention in developed countries as a means for improving their educational systems. With the dramatic increase in the use of computers in education systems all over the world, there is a great challenge to educators, researchers, and scientists to determine and enhance the effectiveness of this technology for learning. The purpose of this research was to examine the potential impact and effectiveness of computer-assisted video instruction as compared to
ORDER NO: ABANN-63881
This study investigates the effects of implementing mathematical problem solving instruction in a regular calculus course taught at the college level. Principles associated with this research are: (i) mathematics is developed as a response to finding solutions to mathematical problems, (ii) attention to the processes involved in solving mathematical problems helps students understand and develop mathematics, and (iii) mathematics is learned in an active environment which involves the use of guesses, conjectures, examples, counterexamples, and cognitive and metacognitive strategies.
The analysis in the study utilized ideas from Schoenfeld in which categories, such as mathematical resources, cognitive and metacognitive strategies, and belief systems, are considered useful in analyzing the students' processes for solving problems. A model proposed by Perkins and Simmons involving four frames of knowledge (content, problem solving, epistemic, and inquiry) is used to analyze students' difficulties in learning mathematics.
The students' work in the assignments reflected increasing awareness of the use of problem solving strategies as the course developed. Analysis of the students' task-based interviews suggests that the students' first attempts to solve a problem involved identifying familiar terms in the problem and making some calculations often without having a clear understanding of the problem. The students often spent much time exploring only one strategy and experienced difficulties in using alternatives. However, hints from the interviewer helped the students to consider other possibilities. Although the students recognized the importance of checking the solution of a problem, they mainly focused on whether there was an error in their calculations rather than reflecting on the sense of the solution. These results lead to the conclusion that it takes time for students to conceptualize problem solving strategies and use them on their own when asked to solve mathematical problems.
It is recommended that problem solving instruction include the participation or coordinated involvement of all course instructors, as the selection of problems for class discussions and for assignments is a task requiring time and discussion with colleagues. Periodic discussions of course directions are necessary to make and evaluate decisions that best fit the development of the course.
ORDER NO: ABA92-07925
This study was a documentation and analysis of a pedagogical approach to teaching C programming to college students. The approach involved self-determined assignments in which students selected projects which reflected their interests and experiences. The approach was based on Freire's theory of interactive pedagogy that emphasizes the use of students' life experiences as generative themes for the learning process.
Twenty-one students from the San Francisco Downtown Community College center who completed a course in beginning C programming during the Fall 1990 were subjects in the study. Data were collected through journals, audiotapes, videotapes, and questionnaires. Five of these students were extensively interviewed to gain insights as to the students' perspectives about the pedagogical approach.
The findings were that the approach based on self-determined assignments was successful in creating a low-pressure atmosphere in which students' interest and motivation were maintained. Most students found the self-determined assignments positive because they could be creative and do things of interest to them. Some students criticized the approach because it put students without resources at a disadvantage to those with resources. Some students preferred to have the instructor decide what to study because they felt at a loss to know what to do. Some students criticized the approach because it did not present the basic programming techniques in a structured way.
The approach appeared to succeed in that the 21 students who completed the course appeared to have learned basic C programming exceptionally well, and some learned very advanced techniques in graphics. Moreover, students appeared to be empowered by the approach which allowed them to complete a self-determined assignment and then present it to the class as a final project. Students greatly enjoyed their presentations. In addition, students were required to make all decisions regarding their learning of C programming relative to their self-determined assignments. Their need to deliberate the purpose and effect of their programs helped them develop a critical consciousness regarding computer programming that extended far beyond C programming skills.
ORDER NO: ABA92-06163
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of a commercially-prepared basic reading package delivered by a self-paced audiovisual system, and a teacher-directed, traditional textbook materials approach utilized for improving reading rate, vocabulary development, e.r reading comprehension for college students enrolled in a developmental reading program.
A pretest/posttest quasi-experimental design was used in this study. Selected college students were assigned to an experimental or control group. From Developmental Reading 1103 classes at Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College, Perkinston Campus, 27 students were assigned to each group.
The experimental group was taught in a learning laboratory setting utilizing a commercially-prepared basic reading skills package delivered by a self-paced audiovisual system for teaching reading skills in a college-level reading program. The control group was instructed using a teacher-directed traditional textbook material approach. Reading rate, vocabulary development, and reading comprehension were measured by the Nelson-Denny Reading Test, Form C (pretest) and Form D (posttest).
Three hypotheses were tested using a univariate statistical technique to analyze the means gains in the areas of reading rate, vocabulary development, and reading comprehension. The results for the study showed that the experimental group (F = 11.45, df = 1/51, p =.001) made significantly greater gains in reading rate. An analysis of variance showed that the experimental and control groups were equivalent with respect to race, sex, and age at the time of the pretesting.
01203076 ORDER NO: ABA92-05991
This dissertation presents an analytical framework for studying distance education. The study investigated Taiwan's National University students' study habits and the impact of such habits on learning and grade achievement. The structure of face-to-face instruction was examined and as were the perspectives of students involved in higher education. In addition, the gains achieved through independent study were explored. The problem under investigation was related to a possible conflict of interests existing between students and administrators regarding NOU's unstructured model of instruction. To a degree, this contention was associated with the assumption that distance education eliminates the need for instructors and classroom meetings completely.
Three findings of the study are relevant to NOU. First, the study showed that independent learning habits had an impact on the grade achievement of independent, self-directed students of NOU. Second, the study established that an independent learner tends to participate less in face-to-face instruction or group meetings. Third, the study indicated that Taiwan's Open University traditional educational methods did not encourage adult learning in choosing what studdts studied and did not encourage self-motivation or provide avenues for self-evaluation.
This study recommends that a re-examination of the justification for study centers as applied to NOU be undertaken and that students who demonstrate the aptitude for working alone and independently should be encouraged and rewarded. Attendance at weekend meetings should be made optional for independent learners.
ORDER NO: ABA91-29247
This study investigated the effectiveness of two different instructional methodolooids on the written paraphrasing abilities of study subjects. The methodologies included traditional textbook instruction and instruction that uses graphic representation, or semantic mapping, as an intermediary step. The study presented a model of the paraphrasing process of English as a Second Language (ESL) students at the post-secondary level.
Usable data were collected from 59 students in six upper-intermediate level university ESL classes at The George Washington University. Composite scores from pretests of paraphrasing ability were analyzed to determine whether ability correlated with subject's age, gender, native language, English proficiency level, general academic or technical track, and graduate/undergraduate status. English proficiency level was the only variable that correlated, indicating that subjects with higher levels also had higher pretest scores.
Of the six classes, three received instruction using graphic representations, and three received traditional textbook instruction. Statistical analysis indicated that both groups were equivalent in paraphrasing abilities prior to treatment.
Posttest scores were analyzed to determine whether instructional methodologies affected paraphrasing abilities, and whether any subject variables affected paraphrasing abilities after instruction.
Posttest analysis indicated that the instructional methodology that uses graphic representation significantly improved paraphrasing performance, while the instruction utilizing traditional textbook methodology did not. Results also indicated that no subject variable significantly affected posttest outcomes subsequent to instruction.
ORDER NO: ABA91-28693
The problem with which this study is concerned is the possibility of increasing mathematical problem-solving knowledge of elementary school teachers and the acceptance of computers in instruction through the use of computers and student-oriented computer software.
This study has a threefold purpose. The first is to determine the mathematical knowledge and attitudes toward mathematics of a selected group of sixth-grade mathematics teachers. The second is to select computer software packages for use by these teachers in their classrooms in an attempt to modify their knowledge and attitudes. The final purpose is to determine and analyze the changes in knowledge and attitudes following the use of selected software.
The population for this study consists of twenty teachers from seven public and two private school districts participating in an EESA grant project, "Integrating Mathematics Software into the Sixth-Grade Classroom Within the Texas Education Agency's Model for Effective Teaching," at a large university in Texas.
The data indicate a posttest mean of 37.0 with a standard deviation of 3.24, while the pretest mean was 36.4 with a standard deviation of 3.17. The F-Ratio of 2.59 with 19 and 20 degrees of freedom indicates a significance of.0203. This significance level is less than the probability of.05; therefore, a significant difference exists between the pretest and posttest scores on mathematical knowledge.
The data indicate a posttest attitude mean of 14.35, while the pretest attitude mean was 8.625. The F-Ratio of 1.903 indicates a significance level of.0811. This significance level is greater than the probability of.05; therefore, a significant difference exists between the pretest and posttest scores of attitudes toward mathematics and problem-solving.
The interaction of the factors of gender, ethnicity, and education did not seem to have a signm&Z,xwt effect on mathematical knowledge. These same factors also showed no CiCnificant interaction with mathematical attitudes.
ORDER NO: ABA91-27450
The purpose of this study was to identify and describe nursing higher education policy recommendations relative to an area in cognitive psychology called pattern recognition procedures and their influence on one desirable nursing education outcome. The desirable educational outcome was the ability of nurses to recognize and classify an emerging or changing health status pattern which threatened a patient's well-being. An investigation of educator awareness and practice in teaching pattern recognition in nursing provided preliminary research toward outcome assessment.
The recommendations stem from an investigation of baccalaureate nursing educators' perceptions of pattern recognition procedures as underlying principles for instructional strategies and their reported use of strategies based on these principles. A self-administered questionnaire was completed by 255 baccalaureate educators teaching in university- or college-based programs of the three major Carnegie classification types in the four major regions of the United States.
Descriptive statistical analysis revealed that the majority of educators perceived the principles of feature frequency, number, probability, and context to underlie instructional strategy use in depicting diagnostic patterns to nursing students. The majority did not perceive priming as a teacher-initiated activity. The majority of educators reported using advance organizers, environment-based techniques, algorithms and heuristics, questioning techniques, and planned discourse at different levels of skill acquisition. The majority of educators did not report using paradigm cases, printed materials, stating probability estimates, and simulations on a greater than sometimes basis to depict diagnostic patterns.
Two demographic attributes repeatedly demonstrated influence on the perception of principles and use scores: holding a doctorate versus a master's degree and having taken a graduate level course in teaching and learning principles.
Programs may benefit from employing a similar methodology to identify desirable outcomes and pursue a greater understanding of the necessary input to achieve that outcome. Nursing faculty may benefit from increased awareness of the principles of priming as teacher-initiated activities and to the potential benefit of supplying learners with probability estimates about features in a pattern. Nursing curricula may benefit from introducing strategies earlier in the program to maximize benefits of facilitating pattern recognition procedures.
ORDER NO: ABA91-29243
This investigation examined the relative value of two methods of teaching news writing--a process and a product approach. The research hypothesis was that students instructed in the process approach, during which time they evaluate and rank professional news stories via referent criteria, will perform significantly better in writing news stories, in recall of writing concepts, and in identifying well-written news stories than students instructed by a product approach who are not taught to evaluate and rank such stories. Subjects were 29 Shippensburg University undergraduates enrolled in a media writing class; 13 students participated in the study group (the process approach) and 16 in the control group (the product approach).
Data emerging from the instructional procedures (the independent variables) in the form of scores from five tests and nine writing assignments (the dependent variables) were analyzed to compare the groups' aggregate means during the six-week study. The findings showed that the study group's scores were significantly higher than the control group in two of the nine writing assessments. The data analysis showed no difference between the two groups in ability to recall writing concepts and identify well-written stories.
Although the research hypothesis was rejected, the study group showed considerable gains as compared to the control group. It was concluded that the special instruction the students received in the study group gave them an advantage because the instruction incorporated specific guidelines necessary for the writing of successful news stories via exposure to professionally written stories and direction in ranking such stories. It was easier for these students to translate abstract information from their schemata into an appropriate writing format. Because a relationship seems to exist between the use of referent criteria and successful writing, a planning strategy that facilities memory storage and retrieval via point of reference is useful.
ORDER NO: ABA91-28362
Histories of writing instruction in American colleges argue that the late nineteenth century was dominated by current-traditional rhetoric, which emphasized style and mechanical correctness and ignored rhetorical invention. Existing histories have blamed Harvard's A. S. Hill and Barrett Wendell for advocating a mechanistic approach to writing but have ignored the ways in which their teaching choices were constrained by their institutional and professional settings.
English A, a required firshmJear writing course, was largely taught by a transient staff trained as specialists in philology or literary studies. Descriptions of the course, lecture notes and gradebooks show how its inventional system was constrained by the institutional setting. The course and teachers were scrutinized by the Board of Overseers and President Eliot. Under pressure from upper-level administration, large student enrollments, and current views emphasizing practice in writing, the English A teachers taught correctness, fluency and self-culture in writing. As a required, rigorous course in the lackadaisical atmosphere of Harvard's elective system, English A assumed attitudes toward and experiences with reading and writing that few of the students shared. Thus the inventional schemes of the teachers and the students were at odds with each other.
English 12, an elective advanced writing course developed by Wendell, was favored by upper-level administrators and popular with students. Descriptions of the course, lecture notes and gradebooks show how its inventional system was shaped by its institutional setting. The course provided a forum that stimulated and trained many leading literary artists and scholars, that led to the founding of the Harvard Monthly, and that challenged the institutional roles of student and teacher.
Existing discussions of Harvard's role in late nineteenth-century writing instruction have magnified the roles of Hill, Wendell, and other individual teachers. Such discussions both mask the power of institutional forces to guide the shape and content of writing curricula and reflect a restricted notion of invention and the teaching of invention.
ORDER NO: ABA91-27699
The primary purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of using computer-assisted tutorials and examinations as supplements to the basic lecture and discussion course in macroeconomics. Secondary considerations included college grade point averages, scores on the American College Test, and sex as possible determinants of student learning.
The research study was conducted at Cumberland University, Lebanon, Tennessee during the fall semester of 1990. Two sections of Principles of Macroeconomics were used with forty-one students participating. One section performed as the control group and the other section as the experimental group.
The computer-assisted instructional materials used were prepared to be used in conjunction with Economics, 11th edition by Campbell R. McConnell and Stanley L. Brue. Six graphics-based tutorials and seventeen exams were completed by students in the experimental group. Students received an on-screen evaluation of their performance showing the percent correct and page references for questions missed.
Effectiveness of computer-assisted instructional materials on macroeconomic understanding was measured by administering four instructor-generated examinations and the "Revised Test of Understanding in College Economics, Macro Form B" prepared by the Committee for a College-Level Test of Economic Understanding of the Joint Council on Economic Education which was used as both a pretest and a posttest. Secondary data were collected by administering a student questionnaire.
The Ordinary Least Squares Regression model was used to determine the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. The t-statistic was calculated and tested at the.05 and.01 levels of significance.
Results of the regression analysis showed no significant positive relationship between students' cognitive achievement in Principles of Macroeconomics and their use of computer-assisted instruction. The only independent variable that was consistently positively related to students' cognitive achievement in Principles of Macroeconomics was college grade point average. Males were shown to be superior to females in terms of cognitive achievement in macroeconomics.
ORDER NO: ABA91-27006
Purpose of the study. The major purpose of this study was to determine if there was a significant difference in the perceptions of chief instructional officers (CIOs) in Texas 2-year public colleges regarding the importance of certain competencies of CIOs. The main concern was to determine if age, level of education, length of experience as a CIO, ethnic origin, gender, graduate major or area of specialization, and size of the employing institution would make a significant difference in subjects' perceptions regarding the competencies.
Procedure. The data for this study were collected from 40 of the 70 CIOs in Texas 2-year public colleges. A questionnaire was developed based upon the related current literature and was validated by a panel of five jurors who had expertise in the field. The quest)ognaire was sent to willing participants who were currently CIOs of 2-year public colleges in Texas. The return rate from this selected group of participants was 85%. Data were treated with a one-way analysis of variance or a t test to determine a significant difference at the.05 level for the seven hypotheses.
Findings. The findings revealed no significant differences in the perceptions of CIOs of Texas 2-year public colleges regarding the importance of selected competencies when those competencies were compared according to the CIOs' ages, levels of education, length of experience as a CIO, ethnic origin, gender, graduate majors or areas of specialization, and size of the employing institutions.
Conclusions. Given the findings of this investigation, the following conclusions were advanced: (1) There are competencies needed by CIOs in the 2-year public college. (2) Based upon age, degree, experience, ethnic origin, gender, graduate major, and size of the employing institution, there is no significant difference in CIOs' perceptions of competencies needed by CIOs in 2-year public colleges.
ORDER NO: ABA91-26213
As our society changes and becomes more complex, and as new knowledge and technology emerge, the need for teaching students to be independent thinkers and problem solvers increases more rapidly than ever before. Responding to the ever increasing societal demands, educators have sought for proper learning tools and methodologies to improve students' higher-order thinking and problem solving skills. In particular, cognitive monitoring has been a primary concern of educators and cognitive psychologists. Cognitive monitoring has been regarded as one of the most important strategies in efficient thinking and problem solving. Logo programming has been considered a powerful tool to help students develop higher order thinking, an awareness of their thinking processes, and problem solving skills. Unfortunately, little evidence has been collected for the development of cognitive monitoring and problem solving through Logo programming.
This research examined the effects of guided instruction with Logo programming on the development of cognitive monitoring strategies among college students. Guided instruction in this study involved three pedagogical elements. First, Logo programming was selected as a particular learning tool to teach cognitive monitoring strategies. Second, an explicit instructional model of cognitive monitoring processes was included in the process of solving Logo problems: decomposing, planning, executing, identifying errors, and debugging. Third, teacher mediated practice of cognitive monitoring activities was facilitated in a Logo programming environment as well as outside of the programming domain.
The results of this study demonstrated positive effects of guided instruction with Logo programming on both near transfer and far transfer of cognitive monitoring strategies. The result also indicated that guided instruction contributed most significantly to the development of Logo error identification and debugging skills.
ORDER NO: ABA91-26008
The relative effects of verbal mediation (VM), feedback monitoring (FM), and instructional alignment (AL) were tested by community college learners studying earth science topics. The subjects were 22 undergraduates randomly selected from 760 students enrolled in introductory geology and geography classes. Posttreatment multiple choice tests, with one half aligned and one half less aligned questions, were used to generate the dependent variable, achievement raw scores, used in this 2 x 2 x 2 factorial, within group, repeated measures design. Subjects participated in five or six member peer groups acting as a peer tutor, then rotating to be a peer group member. This procedure was designed to promote the high level verbal mediation found in a tutorial setting, as well as the high level feedback monitoring found in small groups. Results indicated that alignment had the greatest overall effect on achievement and overshadowed the lesser effects of verbal mediation and feedback monitoring. FM produced an effect size of d =.89 and when combined with alignment the effect size increased to 1.4 sigma. The effects of VM were confounded by a lack of control over incorrect information presented by a peer tutor and by misalignment that occurred during peer group activities. However, college age peer groups offer a functional alternative to the traditional science lecture class and can produce equivalent achievement gains compared to standard instruction, with the additional benefits of incidental learning and social interactions among the peer group members. It is suggested that further research be directed toward maintaining instructional alignment in self directed peer groups, gender and achievement interactions in peer groups, time on task for verbal mediation and feedback monitoring, and kinds of science content (factual or conceptual) best mastered in college age peer groups.
ORDER NO: ABA91-26007
This study investigated the effects OfRcontrolling misalignment of instruction on a student's ability to solve chemistry problems. It tested the proposition that students taught to perceive new problem demands as variations in stimulus conditions will learn the habit of cognitive stretching. Sixty community college students were stratified by achievement test scores and randomly assigned to one of three instructional practice treatments. A 3 x 2 x 2 mixed experimental design analyzed treatment, alignment, and achievement level effects. Instructional practice treatment and achievement were within-subjects variables and test format was a between-subjects variable. The dependent variables were the aligned item score and the misaligned item score on one test under each instructional practice treatment as measured by a multiple choice assessment given at the end of each treatment level.
The design tested three hypotheses. The predicted differences in means for the pairwise comparisons under the hypotheses were tested directly using the critical effect size convention (Cohen & Hyman, 1979). The statistical parameters, alpha and beta level risks, sample size, and magnitude of effect, were stated before the study was conducted. Each hypothesis predicted a critical effect size for educational significance.
First, the researcher hypothesized that the cognitive stretching treatment group, PSMS-Problem Solving with Modeling and cognitive stretching, would have higher scores on posttest with increasing transfer demand than the other treatment groups, PS, Problem Solving and PSM, Problem Solving with Modeling. Second, it was predicted that as the habit of cognitive stretching is learned, the difference in test scores on aligned and misaligned items would decrease. Third, it was predicted that, the differences in mean scores on test of increasing transfer demand between high achievers and low achievers would decrease as they learn the habit of cognitive stretching. The results of this investigation showed that the first two hypotheses were supported and suggested (1) the instructional treatment explained slightly more of the variance than entering achievement level and (2) that teaching students to cognitive stretch can significantly affect student performance on transfer demand items.
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