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1997 Dissertation Abstracts: Part 9
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ORDER NO: ABA98-02227
EQUIPPING COLLEGE STUDENTS FOR LEADERSHIP IN SOCIAL CRISIS MINISTRY WITH KELLY MILLER SMITH, SR. AS A MODEL FOR REFLECTION Author: KIMBROUGH, EDITH WINTERS Degree: D.MIN. Year: 1996 Corporate Source/Institution: UNITED THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY (0456) Adviser: FORREST E. HARRIS, SR. Source: VOLUME 58/07-A OF DISSERTATION ABSTRACTS INTERNATIONAL. PAGE 2589. 296 PAGES Descriptors: EDUCATION, RELIGIOUS; RELIGION, GENERAL This project was designed and implemented through the teaching of a newly formed class at American Baptist College entitled, "Social Crisis Ministry." The project sought to inspire, encourage, and instruct college students to become leaders in social crisis situations, making serious responses to problems of oppression wherever they were found. The learning experiences included sixteen class discussions, selected focus readings, sermonic presentations, reflections on Kelly Miller Smith, Sr., as a social crisis minister, student participation in a Student Leadership Conference, resource persons, and visits to the prison, the Women's Shelter, and the Kelly Miller Smith Towers for the elderly. Methodology included the use of an adaptation of Gaines S. Dobbins' Self Rating Scale for Leaders that was administered before and after class participation; also a written mid-term and final examination. These evaluations showed that the students grew in understanding of how to address the oppressive conditions that keep persons from experiencing freedom.
ORDER NO: ABA98-02184
This interpretive research set out to investigate the characteristics of an exemplary college science instructor who endeavors to improve teaching and learning in a physical science course for prospective teachers. The course was innovative in the sense that it was designed to meet the specific needs of prospective elementary teachers who needed to have models of how to teach science in a way that employed materials and small group activities. The central purpose for this study is to understand the metaphors that Mark (a pseudonym), the chemistry instructor in the course, used as referents to conceptualize his roles and frame actions and interactions in the classroom. Within the theoretical frame of constructivism, human cognitive interests, and co-participation theories, an ethnographic research design, described by Erickson (1986), Guba and Lincoln (1989), and Gallagher (1991), was employed in the study. The main sources of data for this study were field notes, transcript analysis of interviews with the instructor and students, and analyses of videotaped excerpts. Additional data sources, such as student journals and the results of students' responses to the University /Community College Student Questionnaire which was developed by a group science education researchers at Florida State University, were employed to maximize that the assertions I constructed were consistent with the variety of data. Data analyses and interpretation in the study focused on identifying the aspects which the instructor and the researcher might find useful in reflecting to understand what was happening and why that was happening in the classroom. The analysis reveals how the instructor used constructivism as a referent for his teaching and the learning of his students. To be consistent with his beliefs and goals that prospective teachers should enjoy their journey of learning chemistry, Mark, the driver in the journey, used the roles of controller, facilitator, learner, and entertainer as referents for actions to create conducive learning environments. He was able to switch his actions based on which of the constituent metaphors he used as a referent to frame his actions and interactions, and thereby, to create an exciting environment for learning.
ORDER NO: ABA98-02179
This qualitative study examined the nature of reflection engaged in by four beginning graduate teaching assistants (GTAs) of Spanish in a large university foreign language department during a semester of professional development cycles, based on Cogan and Goldhammer's original models of clinical supervision. Data were collected by audiotaping the pre- and post-observation conferences of four professional development cycles as well as two espoused platform interviews and three critical incident recall sessions with each participant. During these discussions, which could be characterized as collaborative analyses of each GTA's teaching practice, the role of the author resembled that of a non-directive professional development consultant. A framework for the stages and characteristics of reflective thought was developed and used to identify the portions of the data that contained evidence of reflection on the part of each participant. These segments were then coded and sorted to analyze the themes that emerged from the GTAs' reflective moves. The data indicated that the reflection of the participants included technical, pedagogical and evaluative reasoning, as they focused on a number of pragmatic issues and basic teaching skills, such as classroom management and the process of lesson planning, concerns which are often associated with novice teachers. Yet all four of the GTAs also engaged in critical reasoning, which involves the analysis of actions and events in terms of the professional, societal, and cultural context in which they occur. Furthermore, they demonstrated a sound awareness of the precepts of communicative language instruction and a desire to facilitate learning in accordance with these principles. The findings of the study imply that reflection among novice teachers can be fostered through collaborative oral analysis of their teaching and that there may be value in considering the means by which we might promote reflection, so that novice teachers, from the start, are encouraged to form the habit of reflecting on the realities of their teaching practice. These findings raise further research questions regarding the professional development of GTAs as classroom instructors, the role of reflection in GTA preparation and supervision, and the impact of reflection on change in teaching behavior.
ORDER NO: ABA98-02169
Cooperative learning can be a powerful instructional tool used to increase lecture comprehension and retention. Scripting cooperative activities according to cognitive learning principles can further increase effectiveness. This study investigated the use of a cooperative learning script based on a learning strategy called "Smart Questioning." Following lecture, college students participated in scripted activities according to one of five conditions: Cooperative Smart Questioning, Individual Smart Questioning, Cooperative Control, Individual Control, and Guided Questioning. Two tests of lecture comprehension (immediate and delayed) acted as dependent measures. Smart Questioning groups demonstrated no significant differences from those in Control conditions on either measure. In addition, those in the Cooperative Smart Questioning condition demonstrated no significant differences from those in the Individual Smart Questioning, Cooperative Control, or Guided Questioning conditions on either measure. Those in the Individual Smart Questioning condition also showed no significant differences from those in the Individual Control condition on either measure. It was suggested that the ability of this study to demonstrate potential differences may have been limited due to cell size, constraints associated with the dependent measures, and/or possible unmeasured deviations from established procedures in prior research. Further analyses indicated that continued research in this area may be valuable. For instance, effects of prior knowledge raised the possibility that a lack of shared prior knowledge may have hindered learning outcomes and that additional practice with the scripted activities may have been necessary to achieve learning benefits. Analyses also indicated that students using Smart Questioning generated more questions and that increased learning in cooperative groups may have resulted from students posing more questions to each other. Given these further analyses, it was suggested that future research should further investigate the relationships among shared prior knowledge, practice, questions generated, questions posed, and learning outcomes.
ORDER NO: ABA98-01965
This research was conducted to address two areas. First, the evaluation was conducted (a) to determine whether the Senior Block Field Experience Program (Block) at Mississippi State University (MSU) was meeting the standards set for it by various entities, (b) to determine strengths and weaknesses of the program as determined by the standards set by these various entities, and (c) to offer recommendations, if any were warranted, to foster improvements in the Senior Block Field Experience Program. Second, the approach used to carry out the evaluation was designed to add to the research-based knowledge on teacher education programs. Very little published, research-based information can be found on teacher education programs. It was recommended in the literature that in order to build empirical knowledge on teacher education, an approach should be used that investigates preexisting conditions, the implementation, and the outcomes of the program. A unifying set of guidelines or standards should also be used in order to provide for a comparison of programs which will assist in building theory about teacher education. An adaptation of Stake's (1967) Countenance Model of Program Evaluation was used to complete this systematic evaluation because it followed the recommended approach. The terms he used to describe the three components of a program were Antecedents, or the preexisting conditions; Transactions, or the implementation of the program; and Outcomes. The standards set by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) and the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) were used as unifying guidelines for this evaluation. Data were collected through questionnaires, interviews, observations, and documentation to determine whether specified standards were being met. A variety of persons directly or indirectly associated with the Block program provided information. Results showed there were strengths and weaknesses in each component based on the determination of whether standards were met. Some strengths found in the program included: (a) the partnership with a local school district, (b) Block students were competent in creating learning experiences for all children, and (c) the students were able to use formal and informal assessment strategies. Some weaknesses found included: (a) limited budgetary resources to fulfill the Block program's mission and to offer a quality program, (b) the lack of collaboration between Block faculty, and (c) Block students were competent in creating learning experiences for all children; however, they were not able to demonstrate a large repertoire of instructional strategies. Recommendations were made to the administration in the department, as well as to the Block Director and faculty. Some recommendations were: (a) the Block Director and faculty must have insight and input into the long-range goals of the program in order to effectively plan for the future, (b) Block faculty must develop a cohesive relationship in order to accomplish the integrated approach which the program was built upon, and (c) evaluations of the Block program should be conducted regularly and the results used to make improvements to the program.
ORDER NO: ABA98-01958
With the changing of the public school demographics among both teachers and students, it is becoming increasingly necessary for teachers to be more aware of and sensitive to factors related to the academic development of all of their students. Teachers need to know and appreciate the backgrounds and experiences of their students to provide them the opportunity for successful academic performance. This study investigated the multicultural perceptions and attitudinal shifts, if any, of selected preservice social studies teachers during their student teaching experiences at Mississippi State University. The design for this research was case study, using observations, interviews, and document analyses. Six student teachers were observed six times during the semester. Structured interviews were conducted with the student teachers and their supervising teachers. The Multicultural Perceptions Inventory (MPI), A Teacher Attitude Inventory (TAI), and the Mississippi Teacher Assessment Instrument (MTAI) were used to gather descriptive statistics. Five of the six student teachers in this study did not demonstrate the knowledge and skills indicated in the literature to provide the opportunity for the successful academic performance of culturally diverse students. Four of the six student teachers indicated positive attitudes toward culturally diverse students. One student teacher experienced dissonance and an attitude change during the student teaching experience based on his MPI scores, MTAI evaluations, classroom observations, and interview. Based on the findings of this research and studies reported in the related review of literature, the following recommendations for teacher education program improvement were offered: (1) Preservice teachers should be provided an opportunity to acquire a theoretical and philosophical framework of cultural diversity and multiculturalism and a working knowledge of multicultural education and its various components. (2) Preservice teachers should have an opportunity to learn a variety of instructional strategies with multicultural education components. (3) School districts should provide staff development programs and activities that are designed to assist inservice teachers in working more effectively with preservice teachers. (4) Student teachers should be matched with those teachers who demonstrate positive attitudes, a knowledge of cultural diversity and multicultural education, expertise in instructional methodology and classroom management, and proven success in working with culturally diverse students.
ORDER NO: ABA98-01838
A new paradigm for college teaching has emerged based on theory and research that demonstrates that effective learning needs to be a pro-active process between teachers and students. This paradigm has clear application to the social sciences. For the instructor of contemporary international relations, the Model United Nations program, a simulation for debating current United Nations' issues, offers an opportunity for both teacher and student to become actively engaged in addressing global problems and issues. In the study proposed here, an attempt will be made to answer the question "What would a comprehensive, step-by-step procedure require for conducting the Model UN within a semester-long course?" A secondary objective of the study will demonstrate that a historical case study (the United Nations' economic sanction actions against South Africa's apartheid policies), illustrating the dilemma of modernization's impact upon international relations, may be substituted for a current agenda item. The major research question and subsidiary questions resulted from the lack of a detailed procedure available from either the United Nations Association of the United States of America (UNA-USA), the sponsoring organization of the Model UN, or existing secondary literature. In this study, "comprehensive" infers showing all elements necessary (e.g. educational objectives, rules and procedures for the simulation, recommended instructional and research materials, assessment and evaluation criteria, etc.) to explain the Model UN simulation. "Step-by-step" means arranging all the elements in a logical order that would permit an instructor, even one previously unfamiliar with the Model UN, to implement the simulation in the course curriculum.
ORDER NO: ABA98-01811
The interactive multimedia animation instruction design was created to teach undergraduate students about Western Animation. The final output of the design is an instructional CD-ROM designed especially for self-study teaching and learning activities. The CD-ROM imparts the essential aspects of the history, techniques, pioneers, and principles of animation. Since the end of the major traditional animation production era in the late 1950s, people have associated animation with entertainment for children only. This confusion is the result of lack of understanding of the contributions past and present animators have made to society and the fine art world. The instructional CD-ROM was created to reveal and examine the important work of various types of Western animations from the beginning of the eighteenth century to the present. Multimedia technology gives art educators and students new opportunities in teaching and learning activities that may not be experienced by traditional teaching methods. With this technology, an art instructor has the opportunity to design a specific type of multimedia teaching system by using computers and authoring software. Because the result can be put in a CD-ROM, it is very practical for the both art instructors and students to carry the teaching design to any possible CD-ROM facility and use it whenever it is necessary. The teaching and learning activities do not always have to be arranged in the classroom anymore. The CD-ROM technology allows the students to have more freedom to choose the time and place to learn. Interactivity is one of the main keys to create successful teaching and learning activities. Because it can be used without the necessary presence of an instructor, it is important that the CD-ROM be designed to interact with the user the way an instructor does in the classroom. Without interactivity, it is much more difficult to engage learning activities. This means the CD not only imparts information but also must encourage the user to explore the theoretical and practical aspects of Western animation inside and outside of the CD, build a certain knowledge and understanding, and appreciate the work of Western animation, and be able to improve his or her animation skills at the end. The interactive multimedia CD-ROM was not created to replace a classroom instructor. Based on my experience in working with computer technology and teaching art education courses, I believe that no technology or machine can substitute for an instructor in the classroom. The CD was designed to offer both art instructors and students new opportunities and freedom in teaching and learning.
ORDER NO: ABA98-01796
The primary purpose of the present study is to empirically evaluate, in a field setting, the impact of the implementation of an innovation on end-user satisfaction, individual innovation implementation response (adoption), and innovation validity. The study examines an internally developed administrative innovation. A conceptual model of the antecedents of organizational innovation adoption and individual end-user innovation implementation is built. Theory and limited empirical evidence suggests that perceived innovation attributes moderate the relationship between implementation tactic and end-user adoption. The model is extended to include two additional criterion measures, one a performance-related measure of innovation validity and a second measure, end-user satisfaction with the innovation. The framework is tested using university faculty in a quasi-experimental field setting. The study examines the attitudes and behaviors of instructional employees of a type I research institution before and after the introduction of a new faculty workload reporting form and process. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and chi-square tests of significance were used to evaluate the proposed models. A large, statistically significant increase in end-user satisfaction following innovation implementation was evident. Statistically significant increases in innovation response or usage was evident in both post treatment years. The third criterion variable, instructional hours as a percentage of total hours reported, did not produce statistical significance in the desired direction. Manipulated implementation tactics used to introduce the innovation demonstrated varying degrees of success, but generally did not hold when applied to the introduction of this formal, administrative innovation. Departmental competency was a significant predictor of innovation response and innovation validity. Finally, perceived attributes of innovation had a statistically significant impact on end-user satisfaction. Implications for theory, research, and practice conclude the study.
ORDER NO: ABA98-01775
The purpose of the study was to determine the perceived level of self-efficacy of preservice and beginning agricultural education teachers in Ohio. The researcher was also interested in studying factors that may account for variation among the levels of self-efficacy. Personal characteristics, personality types, and learning style may be associated with levels of self-efficacy of preservice and beginning agricultural education teachers. The target population for this study consisted of preservice teachers majoring in Agricultural Education at The Ohio State University and first and second-year Agricultural Education teachers in Ohio. A census was conducted (N = 53). The Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) (Oltman, Raskin, Witkin, 1971) was used to determine the preferred learning style of the student teachers as either field-dependent, field-neutral, or field-independent. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Form G (MBTI) was used to assess psychological type differences (Myers & McCaulley, 1985). The Teacher Self-Efficacy Scale was used to measure the two dimensions of personal teaching efficacy (PTE) and general teaching efficacy (GTE). Data were collected by mail questionnaire. Secondary data already compiled from the Agricultural Education 530 course, "Methods of Teaching Agriculture" were also used. The overall mean summated rating on a six-point Likert scale for PTE and GTE were 4.7 and 3.6 respectively. No significant differences were detected among the groups in personal or general teaching efficacy. Respondents were categorized as field neutral with a mean score of 11.4. For all groups, the perceiving function is related to sensing types and the judging function is related to thinking types. Overall, seventy-five percent of the population preferred the judging function of thinking while 73% preferred the perceiving function of sensing. Of the respondents, 54% were males and 46% were females. The respondents' mean grade point average was 2.76. Learning style showed a statistically significant negative moderate association with personal teaching efficacy. No other correlations were statistically significant. Personal teaching efficacy (PTE) is higher than general teaching efficacy (GTE) in preservice and beginning teachers. No significant differences exist among the four groups of preservice and beginning teachers in relation to personal or general teaching eficacy. Preservice and beginning teachers in Ohio are field neutral with higher tendency toward field independence. In Ohio, preservice and beginning teachers are extroverts while preferring the judging function of thinking and the perceiving function of sensing (type ESTJ). Males represent the major portion of preservice and beginning teachers in Ohio. The general grade point average is 2.76. Preservice and beginning teachers in Ohio with high personal teacher efficacy are mostly field-dependents.
ORDER NO: ABA98-01726
This study took an in-depth look at the year-long relationships of student teachers with cooperating teachers engaged in action research and explored how prominent action research and reflection were in those relationships. The study was conducted in the form of three case studies and was influenced by phenomenological hermeneutics. Interviews, participant observation, and document analysis were used to collect data throughout the nine months of the 1996-2000 school year in an elementary school of a large midwestern metropolitan school district. The study participants were part of a non-traditional preservice teacher education program that culminates in a master's degree and is part of a Professional Development School Program at a large midwestern university. The program emphasizes collaboration and reflection. The student teachers participating in this study all viewed reflection as important in education and reflected throughout the school year on how to help their students learn with understanding by using a variety of teaching methods. All three preservice teachers were also involved to varying degrees in their cooperating teachers' action research projects. At the end of the school year, none of the student teachers had a complete understanding of the action research process; two of them had a partial understanding. All three reported a desire to continue professional development, but did not have a clear understanding that action research is a form of professional development that is undertaken by teachers to improve their practice. The cooperating teachers did not mentor their student teachers in the action research process. Study findings suggest that if a preservice teacher education program values reflection and action research, a formal requirement needs to be in place to have student teachers become involved in action research projects in some way, possibly by becoming co-researchers with the cooperating teachers. University supervisors and cooperating teachers could act as coaches for reflective, inquiring teaching practice. A framework for reflection would be helpful in these endeavors.
ORDER NO: ABA98-01673
A widely held principle of communicative language teaching is that instruction should be in--and should elicit from students--the target language as close as possible to language used by native speakers. This dissertation illustrates that the foreign language (FL) teachers do not employ the native-like patterns of discourse to create context for communication, but simulations of French discourse for the classroom. The purpose of the study was to investigate how two novice teachers of elementary university French classes created meaningful contexts for the development of authentic and sustained communication in the foreign language classroom. The notion of discourse is discussed, stressing its archeological and orderly nature. Samples of naturally occurring conversational exchanges were collected during ten weeks of classes for two teaching associates, one American, one French. The samples were transcribed and analyzed, using a method that sought to expose the sequential structure of interactional events. This analytic program was inspired by the Conversation Analysis field of study. Analysis of habitual questioning patterns and the creation (or lack of creation) of a common discursive ground led to the following conclusions. At the elementary level, using native discourse may be impractical. Teaching associates tended to create simulations of the content to be taught. The created simulations of discourse in these two classes were in sharp contrast. In the case of the nonnative speaker, the simulations consisted of stressing discrete facts about the linguistic properties of the target language. In the case of the native speaker, simplified models of communication were created to maximize student language production. It is recommended that further conversation analysis studies of the target code be conducted, along with analyses of classroom communication between native and nonnative instructors and learners with different levels of language proficiency.
ORDER NO: ABA98-01666
In the past thirty years, the effectiveness of computer assisted learning was found varied by individual studies. Today, with drastic technical improvement, computers have been widely spread in schools and used in a variety of ways. In this study, a design model involving educational technology, pedagogy, and content domain is proposed for effective use of computers in learning. Computer simulation, constructivist and Vygotskian perspectives, and circular motion are the three elements of the specific Chain Model for instructional design. The goal of the physics course is to help students remove the ideas which are not consistent with the physics community and rebuild new knowledge. To achieve the learning goal, the strategies of using conceptual conflicts and using language to internalize specific tasks into mental functions were included. Computer simulations and accompanying worksheets were used to help students explore their own ideas and to generate questions for discussions. Using animated images to describe the dynamic processes involved in the circular motion may reduce the complexity and possible miscommunications resulting from verbal explanations. The effectiveness of the instructional material on student learning is evaluated. The results of problem solving activities show that students using computer simulations had significantly higher scores than students not using computer simulations. For conceptual understanding, on the pretest students in the non-simulation group had significantly higher score than students in the simulation group. There was no significant difference observed between the two groups in the posttest. The relations of gender, prior physics experience, and frequency of computer uses outside the course to student achievement were also studied. There were fewer female students than male students and fewer students using computer simulations than students not using computer simulations. These characteristics affect the statistical power for detecting differences. For the future research, more intervention of simulations may be introduced to explore the potential of computer simulation in helping students learning. A test for conceptual understanding with more problems and appropriate difficulty level may be needed.
ORDER NO: ABA98-01646
This is an ethnographic case study of preservice teacher research. I investigate the fieldwork research processes of 23 teacher education students enrolled in The Ohio State University 's LEADS (Literacy Education And Diverse Settings) M.Ed. precertification program. During two concurrent quarters, LEADS interns constructed two literacy case studies. In each case study LEADS interns explored a focus child's literacy learning in multiple contexts (home, school, community). This study pursued two overarching questions; (1) What processes do LEADS interns engage in to construct their summer and fall literacy case studies? (2) What do LEADS interns learn about research, literacy, and diversity through the process of conducting their summer and fall literacy studies? Findings were constructed from data collected/analyzed over 25 months including; the interns' summer and fall literacy studies, guided writings, focus group/individual interviews, observations, and intellectual histories. Inductive and deductive analysis was employed. Three key informants were used to explore the LEADS interns' unique research processes. This process perspective was augmented by compelling stories and negative cases from the larger cohort. Findings illustrate that each intern engaged in the research process differently. The literacy study assignments were not treatments but catalysts for this learning experience as interns' creatively negotiated the demands of their fieldwork settings. Factors which influenced interns' research work included: time, fear, and support structures (teachers, peers, coursework, and technical tools). Interns RE-Searched their assumptions about research. Through the experience interns characterized research as a 'way of knowing' or a 'tool for seeing'. Research helped interns generate questions, critique research, and problem solve issues in their preprofessional practice, and plan instruction. Through research interns' expanded their understanding of the forms, functions, and social contexts of literacy learning. Interns reflected on/problematized their memories of becoming literate through research. Interns also used research findings to design literacy instruction which built upon children's home/community uses/values of literacy. Interns confronted assumptions about children, parents, and diverse communities they researched. Through fieldwork many interns developed relationships with their research participants. Interns reflected or RE-searched their perceptions of 'otherness', placing themselves as researcher in the same critical plane as those they studied.
ORDER NO: ABA98-01639
Long at the center of political and social controversies, composition is an academic discipline particularly responsive to social influences. Its focus on language leaves it open to contention; at no time was this contention more pronounced than in the 1960s, when student and radical groups questioned education and political norms at the university. This dissertation focuses on the University of Washington Writing Program between 1968 and 1972 to explore the questions that were raised in terms of race and to understand why the promised educational "revolution" inspired only limited change. The University of Washington began an Educational Opportunity Program for minority students in 1968, and composition was central to this program. A look at University representation of Black-White conflict at this time reflects the ways the University constructed discourses of "blackness" and "whiteness" that both acknowledged rapidly changing notions of education and democracy and maintained existing educational norms and power relations. In a departure from traditional composition histories, this dissertation focuses on unpublished University documents to reveal the way the University administration, the Writing Program, and specific writing classes constructed differing norms for White and Black. White students were represented as "regular" and "ordinary," when they were represented in University discourse at all; they were the unmarked norm by which the University measured all other students. Such students were construed as apolitical, individual and hardworking--as somehow separate from social and political spheres. Opposed to this mythological student was a "new breed" of minority students, who were entering the University in unprecedented numbers as a result of Civil Rights victories. The University constructed African American students as overly concerned with politics, as confrontational, and as individuals defined by their racial communities. This dissertation advocates further examination into racial discrepancies in composition history and in the multiple sites of writing instruction today. It proposes a re-examination of the way composition has reified limiting notions of "blackness" and "whiteness" so that writing education will help students adapt to existing political realities as it also provides tools to change these realities and promote invigorated notions of democracy.
ORDER NO: ABA98-01475
Preservice teacher education students are overwhelmed with the need for skills, techniques, and knowledge. These students must be prepared to integrate computing and technology into curriculum and instruction and to bring these teaching tools with them as they enter the teaching profession. Teacher education instructors are the immediate role models for preservice teacher education students. Effective teacher preparation programs reflect changes in schools and prepare new teachers to teach with computers and technology and become facilitators of information, not just deliverers. Teacher preparation instructors who model computing and related technology skills, utilization, and integration in teacher preparation curriculum and instruction provide preservice teachers a means to obtain positive attitudes and confidence about integrating technology in the classroom. The purpose of this study was to examine the perceived computing and related technology skills and utilization attitudes of students in the treatment and control groups of the Fall 1996 undergraduate course, Social Foundations in Education, EDF 3333, in Mississippi State University 's College of Education teacher preparation program. The research design was quasi-experimental, testing of sample students' attitudes towards computing and related technology. The sample population consisted of 84 undergraduate preservice teacher preparation students. Five research questions were addressed. Participants in the study were randomly assigned from intact class sections to experimental/treatment and control groups. The experimental group received treatment employing computing and related technology skills, utilization, and integration. The data collection instrument used for this study was the CARTS II Survey Questionnaire. Participants' attitudes were measured with a pre/post CARTS II attitudinal, likert-type questionnaire. The results indicated a significant difference between treatment and control groups' attitudes toward computing and related technology skills, utilization, and integration in teacher preparation curriculum, instruction, and research. Utilization and integration of computing and related technology in curriculum and instruction resulted in preservice students having a stronger agreement in positive attitudes towards use of computing and related technology in curriculum, instruction, and research.
ORDER NO: ABA98-01398
The primary concerns of this study were to describe the most common practices of current college student leadership training programs in the United States and to compare the 1979 and 1997 findings by replicating the 1979 Simonds study. This study provides an overview of related literature on the history of leadership theory and the research on leadership training in higher education, a detailed description of the methodology, results of the survey, a comparative analysis of the 1979 and 1997 findings, and discussion of the current status of leadership training at institutions of higher education. Conclusions are drawn, and implications and recommendations for student affairs professionals are made that may improve the quality of student leadership in higher education. The questionnaire was mailed to 365 institutions out of a total population of 1,463 institutions. Two hundred thirty-five (64%) usable responses were received. There were 174 colleges and universities (74%) with leadership training programs as opposed to only 43.5 percent with programs in 1979. The data from this study revealed the following information as compared to the 1979 findings: The goals of leadership training programs have not changed. As anticipated, staff members continue to be the initiators, planners, implementers, and evaluators of programs. Student and faculty involvement has grown over the years but remains low. Leadership training programs have seen more support over the past 20 years through increased staffing and funding. Concepts such as community service/service learning, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, gender issues, and multicultural issues are now utilized more often than management by objectives and transactional analysis. Although most programs were evaluated, a systematic evaluation process still does not exist at most institutions. Recommendations for this study include studying academic affairs based programs and integrated programs, working with faculty more closely to integrate an interdisciplinary approach to leadership training, using needs assessments to assist staff in planning leadership development programs, developing and utilizing objective evaluative processes so that programs can be adapted appropriately, repeating the study or a similar study in 10 years, and conducting longitudinal studies on leadership training programs.
ORDER NO: ABA98-01391
Due to problems created by publishing limitations and World War II, Stanislavski's book, The Actor's Work on Himself, was published as two separate books. The result was that the first book, published in 1936, was interpreted as the explanation of the whole system. The second book, published in 1949, has been viewed as an afterthought by most of the theater community. The concentration on the first half of Stanislavski's methods has led to two major misconceptions: that the system was focused on an internal and emotional approach to acting, and that the system was only applicable to realistic acting. This study examined Stanislavski's system as it was explained in his three books, An Actor Prepares, Building A Character, and Creating A Character. The study then examined the applicability of the Stanislavski System to the theaters of Bertolt Brecht and Absurdist theatre as represented by Harold Pinter and Samuel Beckett. The research demonstrated that when teaching Stanislavski's techniques it was important to teach the whole system as described in all three volumes, that nothing in the plays or theory of Brecht, Pinter, or Beckett precludes the use of Stanislavski System, and that Stanislavski served as the source for the work of Jerzy Grotowski, who continues Stanislavski's work today.
ORDER NO: ABA98-01295
Perceptions of mathematics are shaped by our experiences in mathematical learning environments. A change in the nature of such an environment may lead to potentially different perceptions of mathematics. How mathematics is done will influence how it is perceived. The context for this study is an undergraduate problem solving course that was offered to a class of 12 students at Sir Wilfred Grenfell College in Corner Brook, Newfoundland. These 12 subjects participated in a mathematics class that featured journal writing, problem sets, autobiographical sketches, investigations, tests, and presentations. The unfamiliar structure of the course invited subjects to reframe their own perceptions. Although the primary focus of this study relates to perceptions of mathematics, considerable attention is given to a pedagogical method known as convening. The convening process involves reviewing the work of one's peers for the specific purpose of preparing a presentation to the class. The presentation is intended to draw out the varied approaches employed in solving a problem. This descriptive study addresses three research questions. The central question is concerned with perceptions of mathematics: "How does participation in an undergraduate mathematical problem solving course impact upon students' perceptions of mathematics?" A secondary question deals with the merits of convening as a pedagogical practice: "How does the convening process facilitate development in mathematical understanding?" The third question considers perceptions as they relate specifically to problem solving: "How do students' impressions of problem solving develop as the course progresses?" The findings suggest that mathematical learning came to be perceived as a collaborative rather than a solitary experience. The value of mathematical process was enhanced, particularly as it relates to the multiplicity of approaches employed by different subjects. Awareness of this variety was central to the value of convening as a practice. The blending of experience as both a problem solver and subsequently as a convenor/observer of other convenors fostered an appreciation for mathematical process. In summary, subjects completed this course with different mathematical views than those with which they entered. Indeed, the expectations and methods integrated into our own teaching models will influence the perceptions that students ascribe to mathematics.
ORDER NO: ABA98-01171
The purpose of the study was between academic success, measured by cumulative grade point averages (GPA), of university students with learning disabilities (LD students) and the attributes of locus of control, use of university accommodations and services, the value of university mentors, the impact of personal support networks, and involvement in the university culture. Second, the study sought to make inferences to theories of student retention and adult success. A questionnaire comprised of questions related to the variables under study and a locus of control instrument was sent to 221 University of Florida students. Surveys were received from 108 students (49% rate of return). The results of the study are presented in two major sections. First, data are presented describing the 108 participants. Second, the results of the correlation matrices and multiple regression analysis are presented. Two regression models were tested--locus of control as the dependent variable and GPA as the dependent variable. The results indicate that the impact of a personal support network significantly $(p>.05)$ describes cumulative GPA. No independent variables entered into the locus of control model and only personal network entered into the GPA model, providing an $R\sp2$ of 0.078. Further, although LD students made overall use of support services $(M=5.4,\ SD=3.0)$ on 10 point Likert scale, use of four specific supports was generally low--tutoring and notetaking $(M=2.8),$ counseling $(M=2.9),$ strategy skill instruction $(M=1.9),$ and faculty accommodations $(M=5.3).$ The distributions, other than accommodations, were positively skewed. The value of the four supports was slightly greater. Involvement in seven campus activities was positively skewed and low, except for sports events. Mean involvement ranged from $M=1.4$ in student government to $M=5.3$ in sports events. Recommendations included (a) investigating the effectiveness of specific support services, (b) developing proactive programs emphasizing self-advocacy and interpersonal skills, (c) involving LD students more in campus culture, and (d) providing in-service programs for faculty.
ORDER NO: ABA98-01131
The purpose of this study was to investigate the factors that influenced satisfaction and importance of contract training programs in business and industry. A survey was designed to measure the satisfaction and importance level of these contract training programs. Business establishments with the number of employees ranging between 50 and 250 from an urban county in central Florida were surveyed ($N=198;$ response rate 53%). The three standard industry classifications chosen for this research included (a) transportation, communication, and public utilities; (b) finance, insurance, and real estate; and (c) business services. The population was identified from the 1994 Standard Industry Code listing of business and industries. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine whether the mean ratings for the three industry types differed significantly. Significant differences were found for two variables. The results suggested that transportation, communication, and public utilities were more satisfied with English as a second language curriculum than finance, insurance, and real estate. Further, training teams leading instruction were an important consideration in choosing a provider for transportation, communication, and public utilities. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine whether the mean ratings for small and large businesses differed significantly. Significant differences were found for the three variables of satisfaction with instruction /training, importance of computer-based independent learning, and importance of curriculum designed by the contractor. Small businesses were satisfied with the quality of instruction provided while large businesses were slightly more satisfied. Computer-based independent learning was a more important factor in choosing a provider for contract training for large businesses than small. Curriculum designed by the contractor was more of a factor in choosing a provider for large businesses. Data suggest that all industry types were satisfied with computer skills training and government regulations training; prefer training to be at the company site with curriculum designed in partnership with the industry and the training providers; prefer billing to follow completion of training; and prefer follow-up by the provider after completion of training.
ORDER NO: ABA98-01057
Far fewer women than men take computer science classes in high school, enroll in computer science programs in college, or complete advanced degrees in computer science. The computer science pipeline begins to shrink for women even before entering college, but it is at the college level that the "brain drain" is the most evident numerically, especially in the first class taken by most computer science majors called "Computer Science 1" or CS-I. The result, for both academia and industry, is a pronounced technological gender disparity in academic and industrial computer science. The study revealed the existence of several factors influencing success in CS-I. First, and most clearly, the effect of attribution processes seemed to be quite strong. These processes tend to work against success for females and in favor of success for males. Likewise, evidence was discovered which strengthens theories related to prior experience and the perception that computer science has a culture which is hostile to females. Two unanticipated themes related to the motivation and persistence of successful computer science majors. The findings did not support the belief that females have greater logistical problems in computer science than males, or that females tend to have a different programming style than males which adversely affects the females' ability to succeed in CS-I.
ORDER NO: ABA98-00950
During the 1990s the technical colleges in Minnesota experienced a significant increase in the number of students who had already completed baccalaureate degrees entering occupational programs. These baccalaureate degreed students typically did not expect to enroll at a technical college to continue their education. Dislocated workers assumed their degrees would be sufficient to maintain employability in the workforce. Recent college graduates expected to attain good jobs upon completing their degrees. The purpose of this study was to define the characteristics, behaviors, and educational goals of this newly-emerging population of degreed students at Minnesota technical colleges in order to develop a student profile and analyze this recent trend. The Minnesota Technical College Economic Baseline Study conducted by Brian Zucker of Human Resources Capital Research Corporation in Chicago, Illinois served as the data base for the research in this study. The Economic Baseline Study was a three-year (1992-1995) longitudinal survey designed to define the characteristics of students choosing two-year technical training and the resulting implications for workforce development. The data base provided a sample population of 288 baccalaureate degreed students. In addition, a series of interviews was conducted with baccalaureate degreed students enrolled at Dakota County Technical College in Rosemount, Minnesota. Descriptive statistics were generated to identify general characteristics, chi square was employed to examine relationships, and logit regression was used to identify which of the independent variables would be good predictors of three different dependent variables--the decision to pursue a degree, the attainment of a degree, and the improvement of job position upon completion of coursework at a technical college. The data from this study was used to identify what impact additional technical education had on the baccalaureate degreed students' experiences as they returned to the workforce. The information provided by this study will be useful in creating strategies for dealing with this new population and for developing instructional and support services for these students at two-year colleges. The conclusion of the study found that technical colleges are working in several positive ways for these new clients.
ORDER NO: ABA98-00946
This qualitative case study examines issues concerning the goals for language planning for English as perceived by participants involved in English language teaching and English acquisition planning in Malaysia. It situates the problem of the decline in English proficiency in Malaysia within the scope of language planning, and specifically within the area of language planning goals. Focusing on the English language program at the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) in both its structural and pedagogical aspects, the study explores the relationships between Malaysian English language planning goals, the various curricular goals and objectives of the program, and the values and attitudes of participants at different policy levels, including ESL practitioners/teachers, administrators, and policy makers. The study's findings have implications for policy making, policy implementation and effective day-to-day operation for acquisition planning, in this case and other similar cases worldwide. The results of the data collected suggest, first that there is ambiguity in goal-setting (1) at the national level with regards to the contending roles between English and Malay in policy and in society, and (2) at the curriculum level with regards to distinguishing between (a) problems with English and problems with communication, and (b) a specific content syllabus and a general content syllabus. Second, the findings also suggest that there exists a goals-implementation gap which is due to (a) lack of coordination and cooperation across levels--national policy to university to RELP, and (b) disempowerment of teachers. It is, thus, postulated that in order to achieve a clear goal-setting, (a) the role of English must continue to be as resource to the society and a tool for development, and that English must cease to be seen as a threat to the existing role for Malay, and (b) environment and opportunity for English must be provided on campus and this necessitates structural changes in the institution. Also, in order to bridge the existing goals-implementation gap, there must be an emphasis on (a) coordination across different disciplines, approaches, planning levels, and professionals, and (b) the importance of teachers as leaders who can have direct roles in effecting change through the planning and implementation of a language program.
ORDER NO: ABA98-00900
The Amsterdam Zoo, Artis, founded in 1838, emerged as a serious scientific institution as well as an important cultural center for the Dutch bourgeoisie. This dissertation explores how the zoo developed as a multifunctional institution and what the zoo meant for the Dutch burghers who supported it in the nineteenth century. The success of Artis was due, in part, to its innovative organizational structure that served the interests of both the professional naturalists who were responsible for the development of zoo-based science and the lay members who financed the society. Artis cooperated with established professional naturalists who performed research on animals in the zoo's unique collections. Their work was published in the first two Dutch journals of zoology--publications founded by Artis and for which they held editorial control. These journals received international attention that brought renown to Dutch science as well as legitimated Artis' scientific identity. Professional naturalists affiliated with Artis also addressed members who enjoyed instruction in natural history, in addition to the exotic displays in the zoological garden, the natural history cabinet, and ethnographic museum. Artis also appealed to its members by staging music performances that placed the zoo on the leading edge of by Amsterdam's music life. For the members of the zoo, Artis was an expression of nationalist sentiment. The zoo embodied an important aspect of the Dutch national identity: colonial power. At home in Amsterdam, Dutch burghers viewing collections of animals and ethnographic objects from their colonies, contemplated visions of nature and of the Dutch nation at Artis. In the last decades of the nineteenth century, Artis entered its decline as a new generation of cultural institutions specialized in art and music replaced the zoo's cultural role. As zoology professionalized, science at Artis moved increasingly, and ultimately exclusively, into the university. Artis' organizational structure as a private cultural institution could no longer be maintained.
ORDER NO: ABA98-00715
This descriptive study examined factors affecting faculty attitudes toward use of interactive video among the population of graduate nursing faculty at Texas A&M University - Corpus Christi, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, and The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio. Of the 63 graduate nursing faculty in the selected Universities, 48 agreed to participate by the return of their questionnaire. In answering the research questions posed in this study, the data suggested the following: (1) the majority of graduate nursing faculty were willing to use interactive video to teach academic classes; (2) academic rank was higher among the faculty who taught using interactive video as compared to those who did not teach using interactive video; and (3) of the factors identified in the literature as impacting faculty attitudes toward use of interactive video, control over the day-to-day instruction was the only factor with a statistically significant difference between the faculty who taught using interactive video and those who did not. Faculty who taught using interactive video viewed their level of control as higher than faculty who did not teach using the telecommunications media. Findings in regard to faculty willingness to use interactive video indicated that the majority (71%) had experience teaching academic nursing classes using interactive video. Most of the faculty first used interactive video between 1990 and 1994, and 60% of the faculty that taught using interactive video considered themselves either innovators or early adopters of the technology. Forty percent of the nurse educators were introduced to interactive video through a colleague, with a resulting high level of adoption of the interactive video innovation. Graduate nursing faculty who taught using interactive video were more positive toward its use than nonparticipating faculty.
ORDER NO: ABA98-00673
The purpose of this study was to determine: (a) the critical public relations tasks of Texas public school superintendents for the immediate future (0-5 years) and for the not-too-distant future (10-20 years); (b) how vision, as a leadership tool, may be articulated through the use of public relations practices and techniques; and (c) how Texas public school superintendents perceived their public relations role, relative to fostering positive school-community relations through the office of the superintendency. A Delphi panel of experts (Delbec, 1975), composed of members of the Administrative Leadership Institute's planning committee, at Texas A&M University, was selected to provide public relations tasks they felt were vital to the performance of the Texas public school superintendent. This study was designed to bring about a consensus of opinion on what the expectations were for Texas public school superintendents relative to their performance of public relations tasks going into the next century. The Delphi Technique was the research methodology used in this study. This methodology provided a systematic solicitation and collation of the Delphi panel's informed judgments (Pill, 1975) on the research questions of this study. Through a series of questionnaires, the Delphi panel identified 110 critical public relations tasks which were categorized into 12 categories: Community, School Board, School, Governance, School Finance, Curriculum and Instruction, Technology, Facilities, Cultural Diversity, Discipline, Media, and Marketing. Adroit communication skills were cited throughout the literature as fundamental to the success of Texas public school superintendents. The Delphi panelists echoed this premise citing the superintendent's endeavor to represent the district in its surrounding community and state; building a sense of ownership and identity among communities, internal and external publics. In its final recommendations this Delphi study proposes that Texas superintendents develop and incorporate public relations skills and strategies in their repertoire of leadership tools; build comprehensive public relations programs in their districts through the allocations of both human and fiscal resources; and include a systematic plan for public relations as a component of their district strategic plan.
ORDER NO: ABA98-00458
Qualitative research methods and descriptive statistics were used to develop a case study describing a self-paced modularized nursing curriculum that incorporates concepts of mastery learning and learner self-directedness. Data used were obtained from historical records, a computerized database, program evaluation questionnaires and focus group interviews. A portrait of 478 students enrolled in the program over an eight year period was developed. Focus group interviews were conducted with current students (beginning and advanced), program graduates, program withdrawals and the faculty. Results indicated that the flexibility of a self-paced curriculum model with its emphasis on mastery rather than a fixed time for completion accommodated educational as well as personal needs of students. Completion time varied from 3 semesters to 6.5 semesters with a mean completion time of 4.4 semesters. The self-pacing format fostered personal growth, individual responsibility, self-awareness, self-confidence and self-discipline. Graduates cited the value of learning organization, priority setting and time management and related these skills to employment requirements. Comparison of program completion rates and performance of program graduates on the NCLEX-RN licensing examination with state and national data indicated lower attrition rates and higher rate of passing the licensing examination on the first attempt (p $<$.01). The program format was described as stress-producing by some and stress-reducing by others. Individuals who viewed the curriculum model as stress-reducing, attributed that characteristic to the sense of control over program pace. A period of adjustment to logistics, lasting a few weeks to several months, was cited by many. Strategies used by program participants were comparable to those previously identified as being used by self-directed learners (Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1990). Although the ability to become self-directed is a basic tenet of this curriculum, reliance on others for technical assistance and social support was significant. Factors interfering with program success were low self-esteem, lack of assertiveness and competitiveness. The present study supports several basic assumptions about self-paced mastery learning (Bloom, 1968, 1985; Keller, 1968) and demonstrates that an associate degree nursing curriculum emphasizing self-directedness and mastery achieves some of the ideals of the curriculum revolution in nursing.
ORDER NO: ABA98-00160
The purpose of this study was to investigate contextualization choices of preservice teachers when they are given the opportunity to develop lessons utilizing presentation software. Twenty preservice teachers in the secondary social studies PROTEACH program at the University of Florida were the subjects for this study. Each student was enrolled in a computer class prior to student teaching in which interactive presentation software was used to create research projects. The following semester, during the student teaching experience, subjects participated in additional workshops on computer applications in education. Following student teaching, each preservice teacher was asked to develop an ideal lesson using Astound. Lessons were considered ideal because the subjects could remove the constraints associated with being an intern in another teacher's classroom. Each episode was coded to indicate the amount of interactivity present. To this end, an interactivity measure (IM) was created. An Interactivity Measure was defined as the total number of possible interactions located within an individual episode. An interaction was defined as an instance when the computer user is given the opportunity to influence the pathway of the presentation. The research question for this study focused on exploration of preservice teachers contextualization choices and the impact of the variables associated with student teaching. Multi-factoral ANOVA and pairwise comparisons utilizing the Shaffer-Holm procedure were used for statistical comparisons. A statistically significant difference was found between the following groups: interactive group and linear group, middle school settings and high school settings, significant modeling and both none and slight modeling, presence of a computer lab and absence of a lab, Geography and World History, American History, and Political Science, and subject taught in lessons not matching the undergraduate major and subject taught matching undergraduate major. During interviews, subjects indicated that their teaching style and computer usage was impacted upon by the contextualization choices of the supervising teacher. Results of this study suggest that use of middle school settings during field placements, computer modeling by supervising teachers, and integrated technology and academic preparation will increase the possibility of preservice teachers choosing to present interactive lessons in the social studies.
ORDER NO: ABA98-00137
In the great debate over increasing the productivity of a staff member, higher amounts of job satisfaction have been proven to be a motivating factor. One of the most important factors in perceptions of satisfaction has been communication climate between leaders and their followers. This study measured the effect of five interpersonal aspects of communication climate (decision making, reciprocity, feedback perception, feedback responsiveness, and feedback permissiveness) between a department chair and his/her intermediate instructional leader on the perceptions of job satisfaction by that department chair. The population studied was academic department chairs at all of Florida's community colleges. Overall, Florida's community college department chairs reported that communication climate activities were characterized by mutual influence, openness, and the free flow of information. Satisfaction with supervision, work environment, pay, promotion, and overall feelings for their job were rated highly. Regression analysis showed a strong relationship between the independent variable of communication climate and all factors of the dependent variable of job satisfaction (satisfaction with supervision, work environment, pay, promotion, and overall feelings). ANOVA revealed a significant effect of gender on satisfaction with the work environment. There was no influence of gender, race, number of departments supervised, and size of institution on any other job satisfaction factors. Thus, the human relations theory of improved interpersonal communication in the superior-subordinate dyad leading to increased satisfaction is advanced.
ORDER NO: ABA98-00112
My students at the university, while technically literate, are functionally illiterate, and they are functionally illiterate because the discipline of knowledge which proposes to teach them to read and write is in the midst of a pedagogical crisis. A shift in the technology with which we now read and write triggers this crisis. Whereas in previous decades literacy was exclusively alphabetic, today literacy is both alphabetic and electronic. The humanities' pedagogy, however, remains exclusively alphabetic. Herein lies the crisis. My dissertation project, Inventing Zin/ography: Towards a Methodology of Identification, generates a new pedagogical strategy for teaching literacy in today's university setting. This dissertation is a grammatological project; that is, it is a study of the history and theory of writing. The humanities' current pedagogical strategies are geared toward teaching alphabetic literacy--the book, the essay, the treatise--while our student's personal and professional worlds are now also organized by electronic literacy--the computer, in particular. As humanities' scholars, it is our responsibility to understand how we read and write differently with computers while teaching our students to navigate the electronic as well as the alphabetic worlds creatively and intelligently. This study investigates Cindy Sherman's Untitled Film Stills and Roland Barthes' A Lover's Discourse as a liberal arts mode of research and writing, not just as objects of study. Reading these projects as a discourses on method, Inventing Zin/ography adopts Sherman's and Barthes' strategies for researching the nature of electronic literacy in order to generate a new pedagogy. This dissertation project uses these projects to generate a set of instructions for understanding the electronic literacy of today. Inventing Zin/ography suggests a method for teaching students to learn how to learn by demonstrating how to invent new research strategies from old.
ORDER NO: ABA98-00091
This study investigated the efficacy of a metacognitive training program designed to assist students in learning from science objects. The purpose of this study were (1) to identify strategies that would allow students to become aware and control their thinking about objects; (2) to incorporate these strategies into a metacognitive training program; (3) to examine the effectiveness of this training program; and (4) to explore the interaction of learner characteristics with the effectiveness of the training program. An eight-step, object-learning metacognitive training program was developed. The training program consisted of written directions and a practice activity. This program was tested with 122 undergraduate students from a large public university in Florida. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups in a posttest-only control group experimental design and were given aptitude tests of induction, visual memory, and verbal ability to investigate possible interactions between these aptitudes and object learning. One significant effect $\rm (p<.05)$ indicated that subjects who participated in the application task performed better on a test of science basic skills, concept knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge than students who did not experience the activity. Also, an aptitude x treatment interaction was significant (p = 0.04). Subjects who scored low on the induction aptitude measure performed best on the application task when they had the opportunity to participate in the training program first. Subjects who scored high on the induction measure performed best on the application task when they did not participate in the training program first. The training program provided needed support to students who scored lower in induction, while interfering with the high ability subjects. Interestingly, verbal ability and visual memory did not predict performance or interact on this task. The finding that the training program was effective for certain students when measured by the application task score could be a result of a match between the training program content (skills) and the method used to assess these skills. | ||||||||||||
