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1996 Dissertation Abstracts: Part 3
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ORDER NO: ABA96-33830
PERCEPTIONS OF GRADUATE TEACHING ASSISTANTS AND THEIR STUDENTS ON COLLABORATIVE LEARNING IN REFORM CALCULUS AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO INSTRUCTION AND ACHIEVEMENT Author: KILDAY, BETH ANN Degree: ED.D. Year: 1996 Corporate Source/Institution: MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY (0137) Advisers: LYLE E. ANDERSEN; WILLIAM D. HALL Source: VOLUME 57/06-A OF DISSERTATION ABSTRACTS INTERNATIONAL. PAGE 2402. 253 PAGES Descriptors: EDUCATION, MATHEMATICS ; EDUCATION, HIGHER ; EDUCATION, TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS The major problem of this study was to determine how effective university graduate students teaching reform engineering calculus were in using collaborative learning. The major objectives of this study were to determine the separate and collective contributions of: (1) the class section, (2) students' perceptions of their instructors' views of collaborative learning, and (3) students' perceptions of collaborative learning, in explaining variability in student mathematical achievement. Quantitative and qualitative research methods were used in this study. Six graduate teaching assistants who were teaching a first semester engineering reform calculus class were trained in the use of collaborative learning prior to the study. Participants reported that the two-day intensive workshop was useful. All the instructors were required to use collaborative learning as a teaching technique. The study determined that there were statistically significant relationships between: (1) students' final examination scores, students' perceptions of collaborative learning, and the class section; and (2) students' final examination scores and students' perceptions of collaborative learning. There was a statistically significant difference in five classes between instructors' and students' perceptions of collaborative learning. Four of the instructors had positive perceptions of collaborative learning and two had negative perceptions. There was no statistically significant change in students' and instructors' perceptions of collaborative learning during the semester, although qualitative data showed some changes. Three instructors taught calculus in manners consistent with their perceptions and three did not. Students were generally positive about small group work in five classes and negative or neutral in one. Recommendations for successful implementation of collaborative learning in reform calculus courses are to: (1) educate instructors in the philosophy of collaborative learning, (2) provide extended professional development for instructors teaching with collaborative learning, including ongoing interaction between graduate teaching assistants and experienced reform calculus instructors.
ORDER NO: ABA96-33269
This study of rhetoric, English, and writing instruction at the University of Texas at Austin adds to existing work on the historical relation between rhetoric and English and the history of writing instruction in American colleges and universities. I examine the relationship of composition studies' past to its present by focusing on one institution. Although much of this history is particular to the University of Texas, the story is not necessarily peculiar to this place. By focusing on the local, I am able to raise issues that reflect broader cultural and academic debates and to map developments in composition studies through the evolution of one of the largest undergraduate writing programs and graduate rhetoric and composition studies programs in the United States. I use Texas as a guide to explore how the concern of what we today call rhetoric and composition has been related to such disciplines as oratory, speech communication, linguistics, professional writing (journalism, technical, and creative writing), and English studies. Chapter 1 outlines the early history of the English curriculum and focuses on an important and often ignored aspect of English studies--the history of instruction in public discourse. Chapter 2 offers a broader view of the growth and development of English studies, and accounts for some of the perennial problems and controversies troubling English faculty and administrators. Chapter 3 focuses on the 1984-85 event known as the "decomposition of English," "the lecturer crisis," or the "literature/rhetoric split," in which a four-year writing sequence was dismantled and forty-seven lecturers who had been working full-time in the Department of English permanently lost their jobs. Chapter 4 explains circumstances at Texas in the context of developments in composition studies nationally. Chapter 5 addresses the local and national dispute over "Writing about Difference," a proposed syllabus for the required first-year writing course. Chapter 6 assesses recent developments and considers the prospects for the future.
ORDER NO: ABA96-28697
The purpose of this research study is to identify the uses and advantages of two particular instructional methods as perceived by supervisors of Athletic Academic Support Units (AASPUs). Individual/personal instruction (IPI) and computer-based instruction (CBI) are the instructional methods this study focused on because they incorporate mastery/expository or instructor-centered classroom instruction models (Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986; Alessi & Trollip, 1991; Barr & Tagg, 1995). Using a survey research design the study sought to answer the following research questions: (1) To what extent are Athletic Academic Support Units using individual/personal and computer-based instruction in the form of drills, tutorials or simulations? (2) What instructional media hardware and software tools are available to Athletic Academic Support Unit personnel? (3) What instructional media hardware and software tools are being used in Athletic Academic Support Units? (4) What information is used to determine the success of the individual/personal and computer-based instruction? (5) What are the perceived advantages of individual/personal and computer-based instruction for counselors/tutors? (6) What are the perceived advantages of individual/personal and computer-based instruction for student-athletes? The study found that simulations are the least used instructional methods in IPI and CBI settings. On the other hand, tutorials, followed by drills, are the most used instructional methods in IPI and CBI settings. This study also found that AASPUs have more hardware and software available to them than they use, as well as that the least available and used software tools in AASPUs are videodiscs, hypermedia and CD ROM, respectively. Regardless of CBI or IPI settings, overall patterns which determined the success of either instructional method are most often determined by student-athletes' grades, comments, and performance. Additionally, the consummate advantages of either IPI or CBI for counselors/tutors reflected their ability to provide assessment of student learning, provide group instruction to students, and provide students with individual and similar assignments. When viewing the findings of this study as it concerned advantages for student-athletes, IPI and CBI responses showed that the advantages for student-athletes were that they received immediate feedback during the instructional process, learned more quickly during the instructional process, were individually paced during the instructional process, and enjoyed their coursework during the instructional process. Suggestions for further research and implications of the findings are discussed.
ORDER NO: ABA96-28178
The purpose of this study was to examine instructional effects of different types of interactive questioning strategies with feedback in complementing visualized instruction. Among items examined were effects of prior knowledge, time spent on posttest, and effects of different type of questions with students interacting on a verbal and visual basis and then correcting their own answers provided following each question. The study was conducted at The Pennsylvania College of Technology in Williamsport, PA with 388 volunteer students taking business courses. Subjects were randomized into treatments groups after pretesting for prior knowledge and then given a self-paced instructional book with one group receiving input-questioning strategies, one group receiving processing-questioning strategies, one group receiving output-questions, and one group receiving no-questioning strategies. Each group that received questioning strategies were given answers to each question to check their answers after each question. Following the self-paced instruction each student was given a posttest to test for different educational objectives.
Analysis of variance revealed no significant differences in achievement among students receiving the varied interactive questioning strategies with feedback on tests measuring different educational objectives and the amount of time students from each treatment spent on taking the posttest. Conclusions may be drawn that questions and visuals when used separately in verbal instruction are effective in improving achievement. However, when using visuals and questions together in verbal instruction, they tend to distract the learner and hinder performance.
Investigation of differences in the high, middle, and low prior knowledge groups within treatments showed that prior knowledge was a factor in achievement. Results indicated that output questioning strategies when used with visual instruction help low and middle prior knowledge group perform at the same level as high prior knowledge group when taking an identification posttest. This suggests that higher level questions that ask students to use information learned to evaluate, judge, predict, forecast, and hypothesize increases student performance who possess a limited amount of prior knowledge to a level equal to students entering testing with greater amounts of prior knowledge on identification posttests.
ORDER NO: ABA96-27557
The purpose of the study was to determine the effects of normal instruction supplemented by the computer-assisted instruction English program Grammar Game on achievement and attitude scores of vocational-technical students in Thailand.
The experimental design was a 2 x 2 factorial ANOVA design. One hundred seventy-eight students at the Lanna Polytechnical College in Thailand were randomly selected from the population of 10 classrooms. Four classes were intact groups, with two classes randomly assigned to the experimental groups which received Lecture/CAI and the other two as control groups which received Lecture. The 89 students in each group were divided into high- and low-ability, based on their previous English scores. Subjects received treatment for nine weeks. Pre-test and post-test instruments on achievement and attitude were administered to both groups. The Statistical Analysis System (SAS), and the General Linear Model (GLM) package computer program yielded the MANOVA results.
Based on data analysis, the findings were as follows: (1) There was a significant difference between the students in a Lecture/CAI English program and the students in a Lecture English program when they were compared simultaneously on the achievement and attitude scores, F(1, 176) = 18.97, $p < .05$. (2) There was no significant interaction between the types of teaching methods and levels of ability when achievement was used as the dependent variable, F(1, 174) =.48, $p>.05$. (3) There was no significant interaction between the types of teaching methods and levels of ability when attitude was used as the dependent variable, F(1, 174) =.06, $p > .05$. The conclusion was that normal instruction supplemented by CAI improved achievement and attitude scores. On the other hand, the effect of two types of methods on achievement remained the same for high- and low-ability students and so did the effect of two types of methods on attitude.
Future research should examine different CAI software packages, CAI within a full year, the effects of ability on achievement and attitude, background knowledge, more levels of independent variables, characteristics of an effective CAI program, and a case study with larger population in Thailand.
ORDER NO: ABA96-26699
An instructional method called mastery learning was investigated for Social Work education by contrasting it with non-mastery instruction using 137 undergraduates in a social work course. The following independent variables were measured: achievement, retention, student study hours spent, student attitudes toward course topic, and student course evaluations. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected about student preference for, ratings of, and attitude toward, instructional method. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected about instructor time spent and instructor reactions to instructional method.
A quasi-experimental, contrast group design with repeated measures was employed. One instructor taught two course sections with mastery learning instruction, another instructor taught two course sections with non-mastery instruction. The mastery group had three study guides, three exams, three makeup exams, six quizzes, and mandatory outside class, instructor-led, group correctives. Instruction and instructor were confounded, but student comments suggest results were from instructional method.
Both methods resulted in similar findings: achievement, study hours, instructor hours, changes in attitude toward course topic, and instructor evaluations. Mastery learning resulted in greater retention (p $<$.05), but the difference amounted to one test item. The mastery learning group preferred mastery learning (100%), rated it positively (93%), and commented positively about mastery learning (86%). One percent of the student comments were negative. Positive instructor reactions included increased classroom time efficiency, and better coordination between teaching and testing. Negative instructor reactions included setup time required and, recognition of faulty teaching through quizzes and correctives.
Mastery learning resulted in similar findings compared to non-mastery instruction on a range of variables related to student achievement and student attitudes toward course topic. The mastery instructor and mastery group reacted positively to mastery learning instruction. Mastery learning required similar amounts of instructional time, but required additional implementation time. Other implementations of the mastery learning elements could require increased implementation time.
Mastery learning is a well articulated instructional method with potential to help novice social work instructors with little teaching experience. Mastery learning should be considered a promising instructional method for social work education.
ORDER NO: ABA96-26477
The purpose of this study was to identify several key elements regarding the use of technology resources by a teacher education faculty within a College of Education located in the Southwest United States.
This study employed both quantitative and qualitative research methods to: (1) report the current frequency of use of technology resources by the professors sampled in the study, (2) describe the major purposes for their use of technology as communicated via the survey data or through interviews with selected study participants, or both, (3) describe the types of technologies that are currently being employed by the professors studied, (4) describe the degree to which these professors require the use of technology by their students, and (5) explain the purposes behind these requirements as revealed by the selected professors through interview responses.
The results of the survey data revealed that faculty use of technology for instructional purposes was minimal, the major purposes for which faculty in education courses use technology was to assist them in streamlining instruction and assignments, and that a limited number of education faculty required the use of technology resources by their education students.
An analysis of interviews of the nine most frequent users of technology indicated that the use of technology appears to be a result of early positive experiences with technology.
The purpose for use of technology for instructional purposes by frequent users is variable--such as developing an awareness of technology in their students and for modeling technology behaviors and classroom integration of technology.
Recommendations from this study include the following. All faculty should be in the possession of a computer equipped with telecommunications capabilities for electronic mail and access to the Internet. Faculty should also have access to an extensive selection of technologies for use in education. Additional recommendations are: release time should be given to faculty for the purpose of attending technology demonstrations and conferences, colleges should hire only those new faculty members who are already somewhat proficient in the use of technology, and proficiency in the use of technology should be one component in the promotion and tenure process.
ORDER NO: ABA96-26398
An experimental study was conducted to determine the effect of method of instruction on the achievement and attitudes of learners. Volunteer subjects (N = 118) from a college course, Introduction to Allied Health Professions, were randomly assigned to one of four treatment conditions in order to compare the effects of instruction delivered by CD-ROM with instruction delivered by lecture. Another variable, instructor facilitation, was embedded in the more primary independent variable of method of instruction. A search of the literature has shown computer-assisted instruction to be widely used in adult education, especially in higher education. The CD-ROM program was on the topic of radiographic exposure and was an example of the new multimedia software which is being used in computer-assisted instructional applications, and which has been predicted to become increasingly popular. Findings show that subjects in the lecture conditions achieved significantly more than subjects in the CD-ROM conditions. There were no differences in attitudes found between conditions. Instructor facilitation was found to not have a significant effect on either achievement or attitudes. Recommendations for future research in this area are given.
ORDER NO: ABA96-26314
Colleges and universities must take a proactive stance to meet the educational needs of society in the 21st Century. The adoption and use of instructional technology and the use of distance education are methods that colleges and universities can embrace to meet the task of educating the citizens of California. Greater use of instructional technology and use of distance education is needed to improve productivity and expand access of college programs. The purpose of this study was to examine faculty knowledge and use of instructional technology, their attitudes towards distance education, and the relationship between attitude and: age, length of employment, gender, ethnicity, and academic discipline. A cross-sectional, time-bound exploratory survey methodology was used to assess the attitudes of faculty employed in a northern California State University. Findings of this investigation suggest that respondents had an average level of knowledge about instructional technologies and the least knowledge about distance education. Results of the study indicated a positive association between knowledge about instructional technology and its use. Factors influencing use of instructional technologies were: availability of equipment, technical support, and preparation time to utilize instructional technology. Greater knowledge and use of instructional technology was associated with more favorable attitudes towards distance education. Older, more experienced faculty had the least knowledge and use of instructional technology. The challenges remain complex and the roadblocks significant in the facilitation and encouragement of the diffusion of instructional technology and distance education in higher education. Identification of faculty attitudes are an essential step in the creation of a climate which facilitates the diffusion of technological innovations into higher education.
ORDER NO: ABA96-24034
The clinical component of nursing education curriculum has received little attention or research efforts to describe the instructional strategies utilized by clinical instructors. The purpose of this study was to compare and contrast instructional strategies for developing clinical competence in associate and baccalaureate programs of nursing education. This study provides descriptions of the procedures used to develop the instrument as well as a detailed description of the results of the initial iteration of the instrument including the validity and reliability information.
Categories of ADN and BSN student outcomes were selected for the instrument based on accreditation criteria. An open-ended questionnaire was mailed to national clinical teaching expert panelists to identify teaching strategies that were considered appropriate to facilitate the outcomes. Content analysis was used to develop the questionnaire. An initial iteration of the instrument was completed using a sample of 215 ADN and BSN faculty from the state of Georgia.
Results indicated that no differences existed between ADN and BSN responses in the outcome areas that were emphasized in the respective programs of nursing. Differentiation between ADN and BSN groups was evident in some teaching strategies. Clinical teaching strategies that required interaction between the instructor and student were most frequently selected by respondents as most useful in facilitating the specified outcomes.
The survey was designed as a beginning stage of research to examine the process of clinical teaching. Revision of the instrument that was designed for the study and further testing are recommended. The list of clinical teaching strategies that best facilitate the outcomes as developed for the instrument should be considered by novice and experienced clinical instructors in planning and selecting learning experiences for students in the clinical areas. Additionally, programs of nursing should consider efforts to enhance the distinction and provide greater differentiation between the clinical components of associate and baccalaureate degree programs. The importance of the clinical area for student development and understanding of the practice role is significant and should receive great attention and research endeavors.
ORDER NO: ABA96-24013
This study examined the premise that when computers are used as a supplement in the college mathematics classroom for developmental students, then computer aided instruction (CAI) will help those students improve their self-concepts, persistence levels, and end of course grades when compared with developmental college students taught through a traditional lecture method. Three hundred thirteen students were studied, with one hundred ninety-nine students persisting throughout the study.
The Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS) was used to measure student self-concept, and the data was analyzed using a two-by-two mixed design MANOVA, with the between-subjects variable being whether the courses employed CAI or non-computer aided instruction (NCAI), while the within-subjects variable was the administration of the TSCS at the beginning and at the end of the course. A Chi-square test of association was used in order to measure statistical differences between CAI and NCAI groups in the areas of course persistence rates and final course grades.
The study indicated that there was no improvement of student self-concept in either the CAI condition, or the NCAI condition. However, the data did suggest that when all students were considered, CAI did appear to support better grades for students as well as higher course completion rates when compared to those students taught in a more traditional lecture manner.
ORDER NO: ABA96-24009
A growing segment of the community college student population is in the developmental studies area. A major factor that has led to this increase, in the State of Texas, is the requirement that students entering a Texas public institution of higher education complete the Texas Academic Skills Program (TASP) exam. Students who do not successfully complete each section (reading, writing, and mathematics) of the exam must remediate their deficiencies through enrollment in developmental studies. The TASP office of the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board has identified two categories of developmental studies instructional delivery, course-based (traditional lecture/discussion) and noncourse-based (all other methods of instructional delivery). This study investigates whether there are any differences in performance of students when completing course-based or noncourse-based developmental studies and if the differences are attributable to student age or ethnicity. The subjects included Texas public community college students enrolled in developmental studies courses during the Fall semester of 1993. Developmental studies reading instruction demonstrated the most effective results. Almost all of the mean scores derived following remediation were above the minimum passing score of 220. Developmental studies writing instruction produced a mixture of mean scores above and below the 220 minimum passing score. Mathematics produced the fewest effective scores. Noncourse-based instructional delivery produced higher mean TASP exam scores than did course-based instruction. In conducting post hoc testing, it was found that students 17-22 years of age differ significantly from students 23-28 years of age. When evaluating ethnicity, it was found that Whites and Hispanics differed significantly from African-Americans and Other ethnicity (ethnicity other than White, African-American, or Hispanic).
ORDER NO: ABA96-23799
A meta-analysis of research detailing the effect of traditional and various non-traditional instructional approaches to the laboratory component of instruction at the beginning college level on cognitive and/or non-cognitive student learning was performed. Included in the analysis are studies that were conducted between 1970-1994, that utilized valid statistical procedures in the data analysis, that included a control, and that addressed cognitive and/or non-cognitive learning outcomes as a function of specific methods utilized in the laboratory component of science instruction at the beginning college level leading to the following major conclusions: (1) The non-traditional approach to the laboratory component of beginning college level science instruction, when compared to the traditional approach, results, overall, in significantly improved cognitive and non-cognitive student learning. Cognitive learning includes content and reasoning ability: non-cognitive learning includes attitudes toward science and/or scientists and manipulative skills development. (2) The non-traditional approach to the laboratory component of beginning college level science instruction, when compared to the traditional approach, results, overall, in significantly improved cognitive and non-cognitive student learning, in both the biological and non-biological sciences (physics and geology/earth science). (3) The non-traditional approach to the laboratory component of beginning college level science instruction, when compared to the traditional approach, results, overall, in significantly improved cognitive and non-cognitive student learning when various non-traditional approaches and strategies are used. Such non-traditional approaches include: use of technology (micro-computers, and videotapes), instructional strategies (inquiry-discovery and independent laboratory), and various organizational approaches based on student characteristics as well as on teacher methodologies.
ORDER NO: ABA96-23412
The purpose of this survey research study was to ascertain college students' attitudes regarding school motivational outcomes of using computer-assisted instruction (CAI) and identify demographic and motivational characteristics of students preferring computer-assisted instruction.
Forty-five first year undergraduate college students identified as academically at-risk participated in the study. All subjects were registered in reading comprehension courses requiring completion of computer-assisted instruction homework exercises. Independent variables in the study were age, gender, race/ethnicity, field of study, number of hours spent using the CAI computer lab, reading comprehension course grade, and college GPA. Dependent variables were scores on the Nowicki-Strickland Scale, the Motivation Analysis Test, and the Student Evaluation Instrument of Computer-Assisted Instruction.
The subjects were given three instruments during the semester. The first, the Nowicki-Strickland Scale, was used to measure locus of control. The second instrument, the 208 item Motivation Analysis Test (MAT), measured subject motivational characteristics. The MAT yielded ten subscores and two summary scores for each subject. The third instrument was the Student Evaluation of Computer-Assisted Instruction consisting of 20 attitudinal statements regarding CAI. An overall index of student satisfaction with computer-assisted instruction was then calculated using the Student Evaluation of Computer-Assisted Instruction instrument. Correlational analysis, multiple regression, and path analysis were used to analyze the data.
Findings were that demographic and academic-related variables were not related to overall evaluation of computer-assisted instruction. Only 38% of subjects felt more positive about school in general as a result of using CAI. Higher external locus of control and agreement with the statement that CAI holds one's interest were predictors of feeling more positive about school in general as a result of using CAI. Motivational benefits of computer-assisted instruction were enhanced understanding of course information and course materials, acquisition of knowledge which can be used in other courses, having an individualized alternative to learning, and ease of use of the technology. A path analysis model of causal links between locus of control, feeling more positive about school in general due to CAI, and overall evaluation of CAI is presented.
ORDER NO: ABA96-23120
The general purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a classroom intervention on students' self-regulation process. Because self-regulation is a covert process, direct measurement of self-regulation capability is not feasible. However, theory and prior research identify several constructs related to self-regulation that are measurable. In this study, goal-setting, self-efficacy, and achievement were measured and used to indicate the self-regulation process. According to social cognitive theorists, goal setting, self-efficacy, and self-regulation are directly related in a reciprocal manner and vary together in a positive manner.
The specific purpose of the study was to examine the effects of a goal-setting instructional intervention on self-efficacy for self-regulated learning, goal-setting habits, classroom achievement, and goal analysis skill. The researcher expected that students who received goal-setting instruction would earn higher scores on an achievement test, increase in self-efficacy for self-regulated learning, perceive goal-setting habits differently, and analyze goal statements more accurately than students who did not receive instruction.
Seventy-five undergraduate students were randomly assigned to a goal-setting instruction or control condition. A pre/posttest control group design was used to measure self-efficacy for self-regulated learning (SESRL) and goal-setting habits. Goal analysis skill and achievement were measured after the intervention. A series of four goal-setting lessons was administered to the students in the experimental condition. The control condition received health science case studies to review and evaluate.
Four hypotheses were tested in the study. A t-test was used to compare the mean group scores on the goal analysis skill measure and the achievement test. A significant t-value for goal analysis skill supported the expectation that students who received the instructional intervention analyzed goal statements more accurately than students who did not receive the instruction. The achievement test group mean scores were not significantly different.
ANCOVA was used to compare group scores on the SESRL and goal-setting habits measures. Although significant differences between the groups were revealed by the ANCOVA on the SESRL measure, the differences were not in the predicted direction. No significant differences were revealed by the ANCOVA for goal-setting habits. Therefore, three of the four hypotheses were not supported by the data analyses. However, the instruction did significantly impact goal analysis skill and self-efficacy for self-regulated learning.
ORDER NO: ABA96-22276
This study evaluates the performance of 83 students enrolled in introductory psychology courses on a set of 60 SAT-type math questions. A total of 20 male students and 21 female students were tested with a restrictive instructional set and informed they should guess only if one or more answers could be eliminated from consideration. A total of 18 men and 24 women were tested with a permissive instructional set, told to guess on all questions for which they could determine an answer. The expectation was that the difference in performance between men and women would decrease with the permissive set in comparison to the restrictive set. This is consistent with theory that women, felt to be socialized to be more risk-averse than men, are less likely to guess on the SAT math section than are men even when it is to their advantage to do so, and thus tend to receive lower average scores than men.
The analyses of variance and covariance found that there was not a significant interaction between gender and instructional set even when controlling for pre-test SAT math ability using self-reported SAT math scores as a covariate.
This study suggests that differential response to the instructional set of the SAT is at most a very minor part of the gap between male and female performance on the math section, and may in fact not be operational at all.
ORDER NO: ABA96-20102
This study investigated the status of moral education methods instruction in United States pre-service teacher education programs. Heads of teacher education programs of United States denominational, private, and state colleges and universities in four regions were surveyed to determine if the training of pre-service teachers in methods for moral education instruction in public schools was taking place. The findings and subsequent recommendations were based upon the responses of 7% of all colleges and universities in the United States with enrollments exceeding 200.
According to the study, the average pre-service teacher education program failed to have significant instruction in methods of moral education instruction. The study exposed inconsistencies between support for methods instruction and the actual teaching of such. This study urges heads of pre-service teacher education programs to address moral education in the curriculum in the same manner as reading, writing, and arithmetic.
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