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Having formed the teams, faculty will want to be able to identify each team member quickly and easily, so that roles can be assigned to accomplish specified tasks. The easiest way to establish quick student identifications within given teams is to have students number off (one, two, three, four). Many faculty prefer to identify teams and team members through the use of playing cards, which can be distributed as the teams are assembled. The playing cards allow the instructor to communicate readily to the students their group assignments (by the rank of the card) and the roles they are to play within that group (by the suit of the card). Instructors can enliven discussions by having students draw cards from another deck: the person whose card is drawn then is called upon. The playing cards enable faculty to easily keep track of students they have called upon directly--a serious equity concern--by checking off from an ongoing list, for example, the Jack of Hearts or the Two of Clubs. When instructors add extra team members, bringing some team totals to five, they can use jokers--carefully designated as "wild cards" because of the connotations-- for the fifth member or can cannibalize a second desk of cards. In the latter case, a team composed of five deuces might contain two "hearts," which can be distinguished by the color of the back of the playing card, usually blue or red.

The roles assigned within the groups are rotated frequently to form positive interdependence. This practice discourages domination by one person, a problem common in less-structured group work, and gives all students an opportunity to practice various social, communication, and leadership skills. This emphasis on rotating roles prepares all students for success, not only in the cooperative-learning classroom, but also in the "real world" of society, where teamwork is essential. Miller (1996) gives an additional rationale for role rotation. Research she has conducted using Gordon's cognitive-style typology suggests that students respond differently to course materials and to cooperative-learning tasks based on their cognitive styles. Permitting groups to assign members' roles often allows students to opt for tasks that come easily and to circumvent tasks that challenge them. Assigning rotating roles in a group, a practice perceived as equitable, allows all students to be stretched by a variety of tasks (p. 13).

It is often useful to give the rationale for these rotating roles, which will differ from institution to institution and from discipline to discipline. At the U.S. Air Force Academy, for example, the following paragraph provides a rationale for the practice of rotating roles:

In the Air Force you will hold a number of different positions and play many different roles. Learning to assume responsibly for the duties associated with these roles is a key part of your cadet experience in your squadrons, on the athletic fields, and in your classrooms. To ensure that everyone has an opportunity to experience different responsibilities, the roles in this class will rotate each week to a different team member.

The following defined roles work well in college and university classrooms:

These students are responsible for moderating all team discussions, keeping the group on task for each assignment, and ensuring that everybody assumes their share of the work involved. They must also be certain that everyone benefits from an optimal learning situation: everyone should have the opportunity to learn, to participate, and to earn the respect of their teammates.

These students are responsible for picking up the team folder and checking it carefully. They distribute all material other than the student data sheets or any other items that are to remain permanently in the folder. They also distribute all class materials and return all papers, assignments, or notes to their teammates. At the end of the class session, they make sure that all relevant class materials are in the team folder before returning it to the instructor. The Recorders keep all necessary records, including attendance and homework check-offs, and record any assigned team activities. They also prepare the group's activities, completing work sheets or written assignments or summarizing discussions for their group's oral reports or for submission to the instructor.

If no other specific spokesperson is designated by the instructor, these students will assume that role and orally summarize the group's activities or conclusions. They also routinely assist the Group Recorder with the preparation of group reports and worksheets.

The Timekeeper is responsible for keeping the group aware of time constraints for any activities. With the facilitator, they help the group remain on task, consulting with other teams when needed. They are also responsible for leaving the team's work area in good condition and assuming the role of any missing group members, if no fifth member is available to fill in.

These students assume the role of any missing member or fill in however they are needed.

The student roles are more realistic when they match disciplines. Accounting students, for example, enjoy roles with titles that correspond to executive positions in business organizations. Thus, the facilitator becomes the Chief Executive Officer (CEO); the Chief Financial Officer (CFO) acts as the timekeeper; the Controller serves as the recorder; and an Executive Vice President (EVP) serves as the reporter. Other roles can be added, based on the discipline needs. For example, the fifth student in a group, the Wild Card, could serve as a lawyer, who acts as the group's skeptic by questioning assumptions and conclusions. These assigned roles give all students a sense of importance, raising individual self-esteem while simultaneously building group cohesion

In addition to the ongoing responsibilities associated with specified roles, the real work of the teams will be to complete, cooperatively, a variety of assignments and activities designed to help members learn the course content. Instructors can use the teams, for example, as a basis for short-term activities such as the Think-Pair-Share structure which will be discussed more fully in chapter 5. For example, an instructor might pose a significant question, such as "How does the digestive system work?" or "Define 'due process'" or "Explain why the human brain operates like either a sponge or a sieve," allowing 30 seconds of wait time before initiating a three-minute discussion. To identify pairs for the discussion, the instructor might ask the heart to pair with the student holding the diamond and the club to pair with the person holding the spade. For the final portion of this activity, the instructor might call on a volunteer or two to share the paired conclusions with the entire class, or the sharing might be done within the quad.

As indicated in chapter 1, these heterogeneous structured-learning teams typically remain in place for at least half a semester. Most practitioners agree that groups must remain together long enough to establish rapport and undergo the "forming, storming, norming, performing" interactions described in the group dynamics literature. Most theorists agree that groups undergo various stages of development. Charrier (1965), for example, identifies five stages of group maturation characterized by (1) politeness (getting acquainted, sharing values, trust, etc.); (2) goal setting (Why are we here? goals, objectives); (3) bid for power (influence, competence); (4) cooperation (constructive, open-mindedness, accepting differences); and (5) esprit de corps (unity, cohesion, high spirits). These stages, whatever they are called, require students to work together for an extended period of time. The research of Watson, Michaelsen, and Sharp (1989) suggests that groups tend to rely heavily on their most competent member until they adapt more cooperative behaviors after 20-25 hours together. Furthermore, culturally heterogeneous groups rarely cohere as rapidly as more homogeneous groups: effective functioning may not begin until 35-40 hours of extended teamwork (Watson, Kumar, and Michaelsen, 1993).

Forming new groups at the midterm point, however, does offer students the opportunity to work with different individuals, a useful skill in the workforce. It can also eliminate the predictability of groups that have fallen into set patterns. Furthermore, it gives teachers an opportunity, after having become better acquainted with students' talents, learning styles, and personalities, to put together more functional groups. If new groups are to be formed, a convenient time is after an hour test or after the midterm, when the achievement levels will be more obvious. At this point, the faculty member should assign to each group one student who performed well on the exam, one who performed poorly, and two or three who performed close to the mean. Once again, additional heterogeneity can be built into the groups by dividing the students as evenly as possible with respect to gender and ethnicity. Personality factors can be taken into account as well.